Updates to Companion Animal Psychology's Privacy Policy

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Photo: Zuzule/Shutterstock

What type of cat do people prefer?

Research investigates people's preferences for cats with normal, squashed or long head shapes.

A Persian cat. Photo: Ewa Studio/Shutterstock

Lately we’ve been hearing a lot about brachycephalic dogs and the health issues they can have as a result of having a squashed face, which include breathing difficulties and eye issues (read about why people choose brachycephalic dogs).

But what about cats? Some breeds of cat also have squashed faces. A new study by Dr. Mark Farnworth (Nottingham Trent University) et al set out to investigate people’s preferences by asking them to rate photos of different types of cat.

Dr. Farnworth told me in an email,

“There has been quite a change in the companion animal population with more and more consumer desire for extreme conformations. Although these extremes are not yet mainstream (shown by the reduced desirability of cats with skulls that deviate from ‘normal’), people who own the extremes (e.g. Persians or Siamese) show increased preference for cats with similar skull shapes. We could equate this to a form of ‘brand loyalty’ 

“The problem is that cats with brachycephalia (squashed faces) are also much more likely to have substantial health issues. In this way ‘brand loyalty’ within cat breeds can perpetuate ill-health within large numbers of cats and possibly drive the breeding of even greater extremes. This means that, despite owners unquestionably loving their cats, ultimately the cats pay the health costs of our choices.”

The study asked people to say how much they liked particular cats on a scale from 1 – 10. Some of the cats were brachycephalic, some dolicocephalic, and some mesocephalic. What does this mean?

Brachycephalic means a short, flattened skull and squashed face. Breeds of cat that are brachycephalic are the Exotic Shorthair, British Shorthair, Persian (pictured above), and Scottish Fold.

Brachycephalic breeds are more likely to make noises when they breathe and to suffer from respiratory problems than breeds that are not brachycephalic (Farnworth 2016). They are also more likely to lead a sedentary lifestyle. Brachycephalic cat breeds can also be susceptible to eye problems, neurological issues, and dental issues due to their head shape, all of which can affect quality of life.

Dolicocephalic cats have a relatively long skull. The Abyssinian (pictured below), Siamese, and Sphynx cat breeds are dolicocephalic. At the moment, relatively little is known about the health consequences for cats that have this kind of skull shape.

An Abyssinian cat. Photo: Alla Lla/Shutterstock.

The scientists say that six of the top 10 most popular breeds of cat in the US are either brachycephalic or dolicocephalic.

Mesocephalic basically means a normal skull shape. If you have a moggy, chances are your cat is mesocephalic.

While extreme skull shapes may cause health issues, there's not necessarily an effect on lifespan in cats. The paper says the average non-pedigree cat lives 14 years, Persians for 14.1 years, and Abyssinians for 10 years.

Before the cat photos were used in the questionnaire, a number of vets gave their opinion as to the skull shape of each cat, from brachycephalic through mesocephalic to dolicocephalic, with ratings from extreme to mild.

There were two versions of the questionnaire conducted at slightly different time points. The first version was available in English and translated into Mandarin for cat owners in China. 9 cat photos were used. The second version had an additional set of photos to make 15 in total. As well as the English version it was translated into Spanish for cat owners in Latin America.

The questionnaire also assessed people’s preferences for coat length, eye colour, and coat colour, which in this study was blue/grey, ginger, tabby, or white/pale/point. (No black cats were included).

So what was the most preferred type of cat? In general, people preferred:

• Cats with a mesocephalic or mild dolicocephalic skull shape. Brachycephalic cats and cats with moderate or extreme dolicocephaly were the least popular
• Cats with a medium or long coat rather than short-haired cats
• Cats with green or blue eyes rather than orange or brown eyes
• Cats with blue/grey, ginger or tabby coloured coats

People who worked in an animal care field were the least likely to like brachycephalic cats, perhaps because they had some experience of the health issues that can affect these breeds. But this kind of work was not linked to being more or less likely to like the dolicocephalic cats.

People who owned a brachycephalic cat were, not surprisingly, more likely to like this kind of cat. And people who owned a dolicocephalic cat were more likely to like the dolicocephalic cats in the survey.

Small variations either side of the norm (towards brachycephaly or dolicocephaly) were not really preferred. The scientists suggest this may be why people began to breed for bigger variations.

There was a geographical effect too, as people in Asia were more likely to like brachycephalic cats and also dolicocephalic cats.

1239 cat owners completed the survey, of which 92% were female. The researchers tried to recruit some respondents who had a professional involvement in pet care, and almost 19% of participants fell into this category.

64% of the cat owners had a moggy (non-purebred cat).

Although this study relied on a relatively small number of headshots of different types of cats, rather than a larger set (or even videos), it’s a valuable contribution to the literature. It’s important to understand why people are drawn to particular types of cat. Just as with dogs, there are conversations to be had about the breeding of cats and how to take good health into account.

The full paper is open access and includes the photos of the cats, if you want to take a look.

What kind of cat do you like best?

You might also like: Irresistible: Emotions affect choice of breed despite welfare issues and 5 things to do for your cat today.

Reference
Farnworth, M. J., Packer, R., Sordo, L., Chen, R., Caney, S., & Gunn-Moore, D. A. (2018). In the Eye of the Beholder: Owner Preferences for Variations in Cats’ Appearances with Specific Focus on Skull Morphology. Animals, 8(2), 30.

Farnworth, M. J., Chen, R., Packer, R. M., Caney, S. M., & Gunn-Moore, D. A. (2016). Flat Feline Faces: Is Brachycephaly Associated with Respiratory Abnormalities in the Domestic Cat (Felis catus)?. PloS one, 11(8), e0161777.

Companion Animal Psychology is a participant in the Amazon Services LLC Associates Program, an affiliate advertising program designed to provide a means for sites to earn advertising fees by advertising and linking to Amazon.com and affiliated sites. Companion Animal Psychology is also a participant in the Etsy Affiliate Program, an affiliate advertising program designed to provide a means for sites to earn advertising fees by advertising and linking to Etsy.com.

Sensory enrichment and evolutionary history

The latest in the 'better world' series about dogs and cats.

For more information, you can read how to make the world better for dogs and how to make the world better for cats.

Clicker-plus-food and food-only are equally good dog training methods

Scientists test the use of a clicker-plus-food versus the use of food only in a positive reinforcement tricks training course for novice dogs, and find both work equally well.

Photo: Corey Terrill / Shutterstock

The study, by Lynna Feng et al (La Trobe University), used a randomized design in which dogs were assigned to one of three groups: a group that was taught with a clicker and food rewards (clicker training), a group that was taught with just food rewards, and a group that was wait-listed for the course to act as a control.

Dog trainers have a range of beliefs about the value of a clicker in dog training. Some trainers say the benefits include more efficient training, more fun, and a better human-animal bond. On the other hand, some trainers say the clicker is awkward for novice dog trainers to learn to use and that clicker training leads to more excitable and impulsive dogs.

An earlier study that compared the clicker-plus-food to use of a verbal marker-plus-food to food-only dog training found no differences in terms of the dogs’ ability to generalize to two new tasks after the training session.

The current study builds on prior research by testing pet dogs that took part in a six-week trick training course. All of the tricks were taught with positive reinforcement, using a combination of capturing, luring, and shaping.

The results show no specific benefits or disadvantages to using a clicker in dog training in terms of the dog’s impulsivity and problem-solving skills or the relationship between owner and dog. Essentially, both methods work, and people in both groups found the training fun and also challenging. There was a specific benefit to the clicker-plus-food over food-only for just one of the tricks taught, nose-targeting an object.

I asked Lynna Feng, lead author of the study, what dog owners should know about these results. She told me in an email,

“I think there are a few main points. First, if you find that the clicker training is too difficult, for you or your dog or the two of you together, and you're just looking for a well behaved pet, toss the clicker and just use food. 

Second, primarily interesting for those who teach puppy classes or general manners, even when first starting out with clicker training, the extra steps don't seem to discourage most people from training and having fun with their dogs.  

Finally, we found initial evidence that clickers helped owners feel that the training was less challenging for one of the more complex tricks.  

Although we saw little functional difference between clicker training and just using food rewards in our study training a novice population of dogs and owners, this may not hold true for individuals engaging in training at a competitive or working level.”

There were 15 dogs in each group. The trick training took place at the dog’s own home or at another location suggested by the owner where the dog would feel comfortable. The first session included an introduction to reward-based training. After that, the trainer began to teach the dog a trick, before teaching the owner how to teach it, and setting homework.

Every subsequent session began with a review of the previous week’s trick, followed by the introduction of a new trick. The tricks were nose targeting a hand, nose targeting an object, spin, chin target on the ground, play dead, and stay on a mat. The course lasted 6 weeks, which is a typical length for a dog training class.

Before and after the training, all three groups (including the control) took part in a battery of tests at the university. After the second test, the dogs who had been wait-listed were given the 6-week course so they did not miss out on learning the tricks. After that, all three groups of dogs came back to the university for a third and final set of tests.

The tests included measures of the dog-owner relationship, the dog’s impulsivity, the owner’s training technique and teamwork between human and dog. As well, questionnaires completed by owners after every training session assessed how they found the experience.

At the start of the tests, the owners completed a version of the Monash Dog Owner Relationship Scale and a dog impulsivity questionnaire, then did a reaction time test, while the dog had time to wander round and get used to the room.  Then the owner helped the dog do an obstacle course that included a stay on a platform, weaving between cones, jumping through a hoop, and walking along a plank. Finally, the dog did two problem-solving tasks that measure impulsivity.

The tests were conducted and assessed by experimenters who were blind to the condition the dog was in.

In the lab and in all training sessions, food was used as a reward. Owners were asked to have food rewards the dog would like, but the scientists were also prepared with a mix of treats including pieces of chicken, cheese, and hot dog, to ensure the dog would get a food reward they liked.

Perhaps surprisingly, there were no differences between any of the three groups on changes in the tests between the first and second visits to the lab. There were improvements in the dog’s abilities to do the tricks that were taught, and this was maintained (but not improved) six weeks after the course ended. There were no improvements in other tasks as compared to the control group (e.g. shake paw, loose leash walking), suggesting owners were not applying the skills they learned to other areas of the dog’s life.

There were no differences between the clicker-plus-food and the food-only group in terms of the relationship between owner and dog, the owner’s technical training abilities, how well the dog-owner team did on the obstacle course, or measures of the dog’s impulsivity or results of the problem-solving task.

People in both training groups rated the training as fun, and as challenging. As well, there were no differences in the amount of practice people did. In fact, about a third of the participants in the clicker-plus-food and food-only groups practiced 5 times in between sessions. This shows both groups of participants had a strong commitment to the training. However, they did not tend to do other kinds of training in between sessions.

These results confirm that reward-based training in which food is the reward is fun for the owner, and owners also perceive it as fun for their dog. For the tasks used in this study, clicker training works - and so does positive reinforcement training without a clicker.

This study adds to the literature on clicker training. Earlier research has found that positive reinforcement training is beneficial for older dogs, that even shy shelter cats can learn tricks, and that clicker training chickens increases people’s perceptions of their intelligence.

This is a well-designed and thorough study on a topic that will be of interest to many dog trainers and owners. Although the results may not apply to training at higher levels (e.g. competition), they suggest that for novice dogs (and trainers), a clicker does not have the advantages or disadvantages that are sometimes claimed. Essentially, whether you use it or not is your choice.

Further research can investigate the use of a clicker versus verbal marker for those kinds of training tasks where a marker is expected to be particularly beneficial.

You can follow the first author of the research, Lynna Feng, on Twitter.

Do you like to use a clicker in dog training?


Reference
Feng, L. C., Hodgens, N. H., Woodhead, J. K., Howell, T. J., & Bennett, P. C. (2018). Is clicker training (Clicker+ food) better than food-only training for novice companion dogs and their owners? Applied Animal Behaviour Science.

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Companion Animal Psychology Book Club May 2018

"...From Fearful to Fear Free™ addresses fear, anxiety, and stress, issues that dog owners frequently encounter but seldom understand."

In May, the Companion Animal Psychology Book Club is reading From Fearful to Fear Free: A Positive Program to Free Your Dog from Anxiety, Fears, and Phobias by Marty Becker, Lisa Radosta, Wailani Sung and Mikkel Becker, edited by Kim Campbell Thornton.

From the back cover, 

"Straight from the experts comes the Fear Free™ program, a positive-reinforcement plan with proven results in helping fearful, anxious, and stressed dogs. From the knowledge and experience of 'America's veterinarian' - Dr. Marty Becker - and an esteemed group of pioneers in veterinary medicine and behavior, From Fearful to Fear Free™ addresses fear, anxiety, and stress, issues that dog owners frequently encounter but seldom understand. Filled with anecdotes from their own practices, detailed techniques, and helpful resources, this information-filled volume can be a lifesaver for concerned owners and their fearful dogs."

Will you be reading it too? Leave your thoughts on the book in the comments.

Find a list of previous Animal Book Club reads here.


Companion Animal Psychology is a participant in the Amazon Services LLC Associates Program, an affiliate advertising program designed to provide a means for sites to earn advertising fees by advertising and linking to Amazon.com and affiliated sites.
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How to Pet Cats and Dogs

Give pets a choice, observe their body language and know where they prefer to be stroked.

Photo: Julie Vader / Shutterstock

A few years ago, I wrote a post about how people with pets can learn from the ways scientists give companion animals choices in research. It was a popular post that generated a lot of discussion. Today I thought I’d return to the topic of choice and look at how we can give dogs and cats choices when we are stroking them.

Why does it matter? Because giving pets a choice can help them to feel in control and less stressed, which is good for their welfare. And there’s the added benefit of making them less likely to bite or scratch us, because we are not forcing them into a situation where we do things they don’t like.

Does your dog or cat want to be petted?

For many of us, one of the things we love about our companion animals is the fact we can pet them. 

It’s relaxing to sit and stroke a cat or dog. But do they always enjoy it?

One way to find out is to see if your dog or cat will come to you to be petted. Put your hand down and see if they come over. You can also call them if you like.

It may help if you get down to their level, especially with a dog or cat that is fearful. And don't stare at them, because that may be perceived as threatening. You can even turn sideways and take care not to look directly at them.

If your cat comes over, sniffs your hand, and then walks away again, unfortunately they do not want to be petted at this time. But if they rub their head or even their whole body on you, it probably means they would like to be petted, so you can begin to stroke them with your hand. (Why do they rub their head on you? They are depositing pheromones, which are an important communication signal for cats. Read more on what your cat’s nose knows).

Similarly, if your dog has a sniff of your hand and then walks away, they don’t want to be petted either. But if they hang around, and even nuzzle or nudge your hand, you can begin to stroke them.

Where to pet cats and dogs

Animals have preferences about where they prefer to be petted.

Cats generally prefer to be petted on the face near to the scent glands. Cats have scent glands on the chin and cheek, between the eyes and ears where there is less fur, and around the lips. They may also like to be petted under the chin. Cats generally don’t like to be petted near the tail. (For more information, see where do cats like to be stroked).

If you’ve made the mistake of trying to pet a cat on the tummy, you will probably have learned the hard way that when they stretch out and show their tummy, they are not asking you to pet it. 

Although every cat is different, the majority of cats do not like to be petted on the belly, especially by someone they don’t know.

Dogs also have preferences about where to be petted. Generally, they prefer to be petted on the side of the chest or on the shoulders, or at the top of the chest under the chin, but aren’t so keen when people reach to pet them on the top of the head. Try not to lean over their head when petting them. They also typically don't like to be petted or held on the muzzle, or have the collar held. We know this from a study that looked at dogs’ body language when petted by people who were either familiar or unfamiliar to the dog. 

And sometimes dogs are not asking you to pet their belly when they roll over and show it to you, either. Again, every dog is different so pay attention to the one you’ve got in front of you to see what they want.

With both dogs and cats, stroke them in the direction of the fur, not against it.

Consent tests

Once you’ve already initiated petting you can do a consent test. Simply stop petting and see what happens. If the dog or cat gets up and wanders away, you have to assume they’ve had enough.

On the other hand, if they paw at you or nuzzle you for more it’s a good sign they would like you to pet them more.

If they lean on you, that’s another sign they were enjoying the petting and would like you to resume. In that case, go ahead and keep petting.

Pay attention to body language when petting your cat or dog

Another way to check if your pet is enjoying being stroked is to pay attention to their body language.

With both dogs and cats, if they are leaning in to the petting it’s a good sign they are enjoying it.

Cats will often purr while you pet them. One of the lovely things about living with a cat is getting to hear the soft rumble of a happy cat purring away.

Another sign that your cat is enjoying the petting is if they close or half-close their eyes.

Photo: AnastasiaNess / Shutterstock

But keep an eye on the tail, because if it starts to twitch it may be a sign they are getting over-excited or finding the petting too much, and you should stop. Other signs to look for include dilated pupils, twitching skin, pushing your hand away with a paw, getting the claws out or trying to scratch you, or looking at your hand and fixating on it.

With dogs, look for a relaxed, happy open mouth and a nice loose tail wag. They might be leaning in to the petting, or move their body to put the part they want stroking nearer to you.

Signs the dog is not enjoying it include panting, looking away, licking the nose or lips, yawning, sniffing the ground, freezing, and of course a growl. Also keep an eye on the tail – if it is low or even tucked, they are not very happy – and if they are leaning away from you.

If you notice any of these signs, stop petting them. (And don’t punish them if they growl – this is their way of letting you know they are unhappy and it’s an important warning).

Keep the intensity low

Most pets would prefer petting sessions to be low intensity.

When I asked Sam Gaines PhD of the RSPCA for her tip on how to make the world better for cats, she pointed out that cats like interactions to be frequent but short:

“Sadly the social behaviour of cats, and especially their interactions with people, is very misunderstood. Most cats typically want high frequency but lower intensity interactions whereas many people want fewer interactions but for a longer period of time. This mismatch can lead to defensive aggression in cats with some being labelled as grumpy or spiteful. Having more realistic expectations around the interactions which cats appreciate; frequent but short, will avoid unnecessary stress, fear and worry and will help strengthen the bond between cat and owner.”

So it’s best to pet your cat often but only for a short time each time.

Dogs also prefer lower-intensity interactions. For example, most dogs and cats prefer not to be hugged. A hug is quite intense and it’s hard to move away from. So don’t envelope your dog in your arms; make sure they still have the freedom to move away.

Kisses are also quite intense (and often involve holding the dog or cat tightly) and are also best avoided.

Dogs generally prefer to be next to you rather than embraced by you. And some cats will prefer to sit beside you on the settee, rather than on your lap. That's okay – it's up to them.

Can children pet pets?

Take special care when children are petting dogs and cats. Young children are still learning motor control and may accidentally be too rough. Children also tend to like quite intense interactions (like hugs) which cats and dogs will not appreciate.

Interactions between children and pets should always be closely supervised. With very small children, you should guide their hand to help them learn to be gentle.

It’s especially important to teach children never to approach a dog that is sitting still or lying down, as this is a common scenario in which children get bitten.  

Instead, help your child call the dog to them, and teach them that if the dog does not come, they have that choice and should be left alone. And if they do come, you have to be ready to intervene if needed.

Unfortunately many people make the mistake of thinking a dog is relaxed in an interaction with a child when this is not the case. People are also more likely to let their guard down when a dog is familiar. Remember to supervise carefully and be ready to intervene; if this is not the case, you can use pet gates to keep a dog and child separate, but they can still be in visual contact with each other.

If it's not your pet

If it's not your dog or cat, then you should ask the owner if it is okay to stroke the animal. They will let you know if their pet likes this kind of interaction with strangers.

Just as with your own pet, try to ensure they have the opportunity to  move away if they wish.

And never try to pet a dog that is on a chain or behind a fence. 

Individual differences

Remember that every dog and cat is an individual. They will have their own preferences about where and how they like to be stroked. And some are more tolerant than others.

Maybe some of you are even thinking, ‘but my cat likes to be rubbed on the tummy’ or ‘but my dog loves hugs.’ Maybe they do!

But remember to pay close attention to your dog or cat’s body language. Don’t assume they will like something. Look out for signs of stress or contentment and let that guide you as to what they like.

And any time you are not sure, do a consent test: stop petting and wait for them to let you know if they want more or not.

This will help you to have a better relationship with your dog or cat.

The relationship with the person is also a factor in what each animal likes. Just as most of us wouldn’t like a complete stranger coming up and giving us a bear hug but we might not mind if it was our best friend, dogs and cats have preferences too.

I’ve written before about the importance of paying attention to our dogs and cats. Learning to read a dog or cat’s body language comes with experience and it pays dividends in improving our interactions with animals.

How to pet cats and dogs

So remember, give your cat or dog a choice, aim for a low intensity interaction, stroke them in the places they like best, and keep an eye on their body language throughout.

Where does your dog or cat like to be petted?

Subscribe to Companion Animal Psychology to learn more about how to have happy dogs and happy cats.




Companion Animal Psychology is a participant in the Amazon Services LLC Associates Program, an affiliate advertising program designed to provide a means for sites to earn advertising fees by advertising and linking to Amazon.com and affiliated sites. Companion Animal Psychology is also a participant in the Etsy Affiliate Program, an affiliate advertising program designed to provide a means for sites to earn advertising fees by advertising and linking to Etsy.com.

Motivated by Consequences and Education on Cat Behaviour

The latest in the 'better world' series about dogs and cats.

For more information, you can read how to make the world better for dogs and how to make the world better for cats.

Why Don't More People Use Positive Reinforcement to Train Dogs?

Everyone who has a dog needs to teach them how to behave. But why do many people still use methods that have risks for animal welfare?

Photo: Corey Terrill/Shutterstock

A new paper by myself (Zazie Todd) looks at the barriers to the adoption of humane dog training methods by ordinary people. To understand how people make decisions about dog training, we need to understand people’s attitudes to different methods and what influences them, as well as people’s knowledge and technical ability in using those methods.

Humane dog training methods use positive reinforcement and negative punishment. They are also known as reward-based methods, positive reinforcement, or force free methods, and they basically involve giving or withholding rewards contingent on the dog’s behaviour.

There are many reasons to use humane methods rather than aversive ones (which, technically speaking, are positive punishment and negative reinforcement). The use of reward-based dog training methods is associated with better welfare, and there are some indications it may even produce better results (see the dog training research resources page if you want to delve into the literature).

Some behaviour problems are due to fear or stress, but aversive methods do not resolve this (and may even make it worse). Some problems occur because the dog does not have appropriate ways to engage in normal behaviour (e.g. chew toys). And training with positive reinforcement can be a good way to provide cognitive enrichment, which is important because good animal welfare includes positive experiences.

But studies show most ordinary dog owners use a mix of positive reinforcement and positive punishment to train dogs – so-called ‘balanced’ dog training. From an animal welfare perspective, it’s important to understand why many people continue to use aversive methods at least some of the time – and how we can bring about change.

Many different factors will affect people’s attitudes towards training methods and the actual methods they use. The paper considers these factors, and in some cases it draws on the literature related to children and parents’ use of corporal punishment, which has been more extensively studied.

Many people (including some dog trainers) still use the idea of dominance to train dogs. Unfortunately, this frames the dog-owner relationship in antagonistic terms, and so may encourage people to use aversive methods.

There is no regulation of dog trainers, and no requirement for education. This means some people who hire a dog trainer may get out-dated advice. Some trainers may not be clear about the methods they use on their website, which may make it difficult for people to find a reward-based trainer.

Amongst dog trainers who do use reward-based methods, there are a few points of disagreement. One relates to the use of no-reward markers. This is a word or phrase (e.g. “Too bad!” or “Oops”) that signals to the dog the behaviour they did was not the one requested, and hence they didn’t earn a reward. Some dog trainers use them, and some don’t. For most people, errorful learning with prompt feedback is more successful than error-free learning (the exceptions include those with amnesia). But we simply don’t have good data on this for dogs.

Another point of disagreement relates to the use of negative punishment. Negative punishment means withholding a reward so the frequency of a behaviour goes down. One example is withholding rewards when a dog does not perform the right behaviour (which is inevitable some of the time). Another example is the use of ‘time out’. Evidence-based parenting programs teach ‘time out’ as a non-aversive way to improve children’s behaviour. We know there are some common mistakes parents make, and it seems likely dog owners make some of the same mistakes with their dog (for example, using many warning cues instead of just one before implementing the time out).

Photo: Anucha Pongpatimeth/Shutterstock

The legality or otherwise of certain methods (such as electronic shock collars, which are banned in a number of countries) will affect perceptions of whether or not it is okay to use them.

The different positions taken by professional bodies, including veterinary associations, dog training associations, animal behaviour associations, groups that train working dogs, rescues and shelters, may also affect people’s perceptions of social norms about dog training. Some organizations have clear position statements on dog training methods. But when some organizations include aversive methods as a ‘last resort’ it may give people the mistaken impression they are sometimes necessary, or that there is not a scientific consensus on the best methods to use.

There’s also an issue of competency, since technical expertise etc. may affect the success of attempts to train with positive reinforcement. We don’t know how dog trainers or owners make decisions when they think positive reinforcement isn’t working; that is, whether they take advice or find someone with more expertise, or whether they decide to use positive punishment instead.

Veterinarians also have an important role to play in referring dog owners to trainers and animal behaviourists. Advice for veterinarians stresses the importance of positive methods, but again some organizations allow for some methods to be used as a ‘last resort’.

Of course, many factors relating to dog owners themselves will also influence their choice of training methods. These include their technical skills and the reinforcement they use (which will affect their success rate), their knowledge of dog training methods, methods they have seen promoted on TV and elsewhere, people’s ability to read their dog’s body language (e.g. to recognize if the dog is fearful), and personality characteristics.

Unfortunately the quality of information in dog training books is highly variable and the same likely applies to other sources of information such as TV and the internet.

All of this shows that encouraging more people to use humane dog-training methods is a complex issue. But a model from social psychology known as the reasoned action approach (and its predecessor the theory of planned behaviour) has been quite successful in predicting people’s intentions and behaviours in a wide range of topics – including parents’ attitudes to and use of corporal punishment. This would be a good fit for investigating what influences people’s choice of dog training methods.

I would love to see more research on the best ways to encourage people to use reward-based training methods, and how best to teach them. As an update, this 2019 study shows the importance of dog trainers building people's confidence in using positive reinforcement.

What do you think would encourage more people to use humane dog training methods?

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Reference
Todd, Z. (2018). Barriers to the Adoption of Humane Dog Training Methods. Journal of Veterinary Behavior: Clinical Applications and Research.  25C(28-34).

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The BC SPCA Animal Behaviour Science Symposium

Two upcoming events in the BC lower mainland, featuring Chirag Patel.

The BC SPCA Animal Behaviour Science Symposium will take place in Burnaby, BC, on 2nd and 3rd June 2018, featuring Chirag Patel, world-renowned behaviour and training consultant, and star of the UK TV show Nightmare Pets SOS.

As well, there will be talks from Karen van Haaften DVM, Kim Monteith, Claudia Richter DVM, Rebecca Ledger PhD - and myself.

I'm really looking forward to it!


And before that, on 31st May, the BC SPCA Pet Behaviour Speaker Series is hosting 10 Things Your Dog Wishes You Knew, featuring Chirag Patel, Dr. Karen van Haaften, and Kim Monteith. This event at The Historic Theatre in Vancouver will include live dog demonstrations.

Is Scent Enriching for Shelter Dogs?

Research investigates the effects of enrichment using the scent of coconut, vanilla, ginger and valerian.

Photo: chaoss/Shutterstock

Animal shelters are stressful environments for dogs, and so anything that helps them to be less stressed is beneficial. Scientists from Hartpury University Centre tested the effects of presenting scent-infused cloths to shelter dogs. The results are promising and suggest scent enrichment may work well for shelter dogs.

Study authors, John Binks and Dr Tamara Montrose, say

“In our study we found that shelter dogs showed reduced vocalisations and movement when exposed to cloths scented with ginger, coconut, vanilla and valerian. In addition, we found that dogs exposed to coconut and ginger slept more. Since excessive vocalisations and activity may indicate stress in kennelled dogs, as well as being behaviours that can be found undesirable by potential adopters, our study suggests that these odours may have application in rescue shelters to reduce stress and enhance adoption.”

Enrichment means adding things to the animal’s environment that are designed to improve welfare, for example by allowing the animal to engage in species-specific behaviour, encourage use of the environment, get more exercise, encourage learning, and decrease boredom and abnormal behaviour. Since shelter dogs spend a large part of their day in kennels, enrichment is important to improve their welfare.

Dogs have impressive noses (and vomeronasal organs) and, as we all know, they spend a lot of time smelling things. The scientists say enrichment works best if it targets an animal’s primary sense, so it is surprising there isn’t more research into scent enrichment for shelter dogs.

The experiment used the smells of coconut, vanilla, ginger and valerian because they are safe for dogs, easily available, and have been found to be beneficial for other animals, such as wombats, sea-lions, Javan gibbons, cats and rats (read about different scents that cats like).

15 dogs took part at a shelter in Gloucestershire, England. Most were medium-sized dogs and two were small.

The dogs were presented with scent on a cloth put in their kennel for a few hours per day. There were two control conditions: an unscented cloth (to provide a comparison for the different smells), and no cloth (to control for the effects of the presence of a new item). The unscented cloth control condition took place before the presentations of smells, and the no cloth condition took place after.

Each condition took place over three days, with a two day gap between them.

Cloths were prepared an hour in advance by adding a few drops of essential oils or fragrance oils, and then kept in a ziplock bag until they were used. The experimenter wore gloves to ensure they did not accidentally transfer any other scents to the cloths. Dogs were given half an hour to get used to the item, and then observed for a two-hour period, the latter half of which was during the shelter’s opening hours for visitors. This was in the middle of the day when feeding and exercise did not happen, so the dogs' behaviour would not be affected by waiting for the next meal.

When the scented cloths were present, dogs vocalized less. Since barking, whining etc. can be signs of stress, this suggests they were less stressed. Dogs also spent more time resting and less time moving when the scents were present. For the ginger and coconut scents, dogs spent more time sleeping.

These results suggest the scent enrichment helped the dogs be less stressed.

There was also an effect of time of day, in that when the shelter was open to visitors, dogs vocalized more, stood more, and spent less time resting. They were also at the front of their kennel more.

The scents were always presented in the same order. This was so that other dogs taking part would not have their scent contaminated by one of the other smells wafting in to the kennel. This means there is potential for an order effect. However, because the dogs were presented with the controls before and after the different scent conditions, it does seem that the results are due to the scents.

The scent enrichment used in this study would be easy to use at a shelter, although more research is needed with a larger number of dogs. The results are very promising, and suggest the use of these scents can help shelter dogs to be less stressed.

You can follow Dr. Tamara Montrose, one of the authors of the study, on twitter.

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Reference
Binks, J., Taylor, S., Wills, A., & Montrose, V. T. (2018). The behavioural effects of olfactory stimulation on dogs at a rescue shelter. Applied Animal Behaviour Science.

Companion Animal Psychology is a participant in the Amazon Services LLC Associates Program, an affiliate advertising program designed to provide a means for sites to earn advertising fees by advertising and linking to Amazon.com and affiliated sites. Companion Animal Psychology is also a participant in the Etsy Affiliate Program, an affiliate advertising program designed to provide a means for sites to earn advertising fees by advertising and linking to Etsy.com.

Interview with Dr. Marc Bekoff on Canine Confidential

Dr. Marc Bekoff on dogs, emotions, citizen science and his new book, Canine Confidential.

Dr. Marc Bekoff (right) with Minnie. Photo: Tom Gordon

Dr. Marc Bekoff’s new book, Canine Confidential: Why Dogs Do What They Do is out on 13th April. I was thrilled to interview him over email about why he wrote the book and the importance of observing dogs.


Zazie: Why did you decide to write Canine Confidential?

Marc: There are many reasons, and in reality, I've been writing this book for many, many years. I bring a unique perspective to the study of dogs in that I was trained in ethology and have done long-term field work on free-ranging dogs, wild coyotes, and various birds including Adélie penguins in Antarctica.

Among the most important reasons are: to emphasize how important it is to watch dogs and to learn as much as one can about different aspects of behavior; to emphasize that there is a good deal of individual variability among dogs so speaking about "the dog" is misleading; to stress that dogs display multiple intelligences and don't only "live in the present"; to show that dogs are not dumb-downed wolves; to provide a lot of detailed data in accessible prose to non-researchers, information that can be used to allow dogs to be dogs as much as they can be in an increasingly human-dominated world (in many ways, dogs are captive animals whose freedoms are severely restricted); to discuss how dogs sense their world via smell, sight, hearing, touch, and taste, and why they should be allowed to exercise their senses and to sniff to their hearts' delight; to let their walks be for them, not for us; to dispel myths such as dogs are unconditional lovers (anyone who's rescued a dog who has been abused knows this to be so), peeing and marking are the same, growling is always aggressive, it's a bad idea to hug dogs or to play tug-of-war or to "get down and dirty" and to romp around with them (when we do it must be on their terms, of course), that dogs (and other nonhuman animals) don't display dominance (they do, but we shouldn't dominate them to get them to live in harmony with us), that they always circle before they lie down, that intense play-fighting always or usually escalates into fighting (research shows this actually only very rarely occurs); that dog parks are a bad idea across the board (they're not, but only dogs who like going to dog parks should be taken there); to provide trainers with information that can be used to enhance the dog's life when they work with their clients, canine and human, and to strongly suggest that trainers observe dogs outside of the context in which there is an issue; to strongly suggest that people select certified trainers and to choose someone as carefully as they'd choose a neurosurgeon; and to stress how important it is to allow dogs to exercise their senses, their muscles, and their hearts.

I mix in a good deal of the latest research on various aspects of dog behavior with numerous stories, and take a descriptive "anatomical" approach to naming the dogs with whom I've had the pleasure of meeting and watching. For example, readers will meet Bernie and Beatrice "the butt-ers," Tammy "the tongue," Louie "the licker," Harry and Helen "the happy jumpers," and Peter "the pecker-pecker." All names, canine and human, have been changed to protect the guilty.

I also write some about human-human interactions and how they reveal a lot about their dogs and the people themselves. It's just a coincidence that this is The Year of the Dog, and I'm thrilled that my book was published in this special time. Of course, every day should be "the day of the dog" because we are so fortunate to have them in our lives.  They should only be as fortunate to have us in their lives.

Zazie: The subtitle of the book is Why dogs do what they do, and in it you answer lots of questions about why dogs do things, like ‘what are they doing when scent marking?’ and ‘why do they roll in stuff?’ How did you pick the questions, and are there any of the topics that are particular favorites?

Marc: I selected the different topics based on many decades of studying dogs and their wild relatives, by cataloging questions that I've been repeatedly asked when talking with people at different venues, and also by paying attention to those areas that are important to understand to give dogs the very best lives possible. Among my favorites are play behavior -- how dogs are able to play fairly and have fun-on-the-run as they engage in frenetic "zoomies" and low-key play -- and topics centering on the cognitive, emotional, and moral lives of dogs and other animals. I also really enjoy listening to people talk about their dogs and also other people at the dog park and their friends. Dogs can be social catalysts for bringing people together and really get people talking about things they don't typically share out of the places where they bring their dogs for exercise and to have fun with other dogs. Sometimes I'd politely excuse myself when someone was sharing TMI (too much information). 

Photo: Gerald Marella/Shutterstock

Zazie: You write a lot about the emotional lives of dogs. How do we know which emotions dogs experience – and what more do we need to know?

Marc: That's a great question. There are ample detailed data from many ethological perspectives and a growing number of neuroimaging studies that clearly show that dogs are emotional beings who experience joy, happiness, sadness, grief, pain, disgust, jealousy, and likely guilt. The bibliography and the notes in Canine Confidential are lengthy and filled with up-to-date data from ethological and neurobiological studies. These data clearly show that the real question at hand is why emotions have evolved, not if they have evolved. The reason I write that it's likely dogs display guilt is because we really don't know if this is the case quite yet. An oft-repeated error in both scientific essays and the popular press goes something like, "Research has shown that dogs don't display guilt," and a study by Dr. Alexandra Horowitz is cited as evidence. However, she did not show that dogs do not display guilt, only that we are not very good at reading guilt in dogs. I include an exchange with Dr. Horowitz about this point, with which she totally agrees. She wrote, "My study was decidedly NOT about whether dogs 'feel guilt' or not." Readers will be pleased and surprised to see how much we really know about the emotional lives of dogs, and I also point out where more research is needed. One can be sure that dogs are sentient beings who care about what happens to themselves, their families, and their friends.

Zazie: The book is full of lovely stories about dogs, including your own dogs. As a writer, do you most enjoy writing about the scientific research or about the anecdotes, or do you prefer writing about both together?

Marc: I really prefer writing about both together, as I do in my book and in numerous essays that I write for Psychology Today about dogs and many other animals. It's always interested me that many anecdotes are supported by empirical data that are collected at a later date. I also write a good deal about the importance of "citizen science," and that's why I encourage people to become ethologists and "naturalists in the dog park" if they go there with their dog(s).

Zazie: One thing that’s clear from this book is that people tell you stories about their dogs at the dog park, or email you stories about their animals. Are there any particular topics that people tend to talk to you about the most?

Marc: Not really. What I love about the stories I'm told is how wide-ranging they are. Quite often, the questions I'm asked and the stories I'm told focus on a particular dog and their human, and the unique relationship they've formed. Once again, there not only is a good deal of within species variability among dogs, but also among their humans and in the dog-human relationships that are formed. I feel very lucky to have people share their stories with me in person and via email and the occasional letter, although sometimes when I open my email inbox I feel overwhelmed. But, that feeling disappears rapidly as I learn more and more about dogs and their humans.

Zazie: You say that even though we don’t know everything about dogs, we still know enough to be able to give them rewarding lives. What are the most important things we can do for our dogs?

Marc: Love them, respect them, meet them at least half-way, develop mutual tolerance, and learn as much as you can not only about dog behavior but about the unique individual(s) with whom you chose to share your home and your heart. And, let them be dogs as much as possible. There's no reason to be helicopter guardians, yet people say "No" or "Stop that" far more often than they say "Good dog" or "That's ok." In some ways, my books can be viewed as a field guide to freedom in which I encourage people to unleash their dog as much as possible. Choosing to live with a dog (or other animal) is a "cradle to grave" commitment and we must remember that we are their lifelines.

Photo: Shutterstock

Zazie: At the end of the book, there is a really nice appendix that teaches people what ethology is and how to do it. What can people gain from becoming ‘citizen ethologists’?

Marc: They can gain a lot. By becoming fluent in dog they not only can learn some nitty-gritty details about dog behavior, but also about how unique each dog is. It's also a lot of fun to do these informal studies, and I love it when people come to me and ask me how to become an ethologist. In the book I tell stories about how people have told me that learning to "speak dog"  and to try to think like they do has helped them not only to understand their dog, but also how this information improves their relationship with their canine companion. Learning about dog behavior and dog-human relationships is a win-win for all.


Thank you, Marc, for taking the time to answer my questions!

Canine Confidential: Why Dogs Do What They Do is published by Chicago University Press.

Companion Animal Psychology has published interviews with talented scientists, writers, trainers and veterinarians who are working to promote good animal welfare. See the full list or subscribe to learn more about how to have happy dogs and cats.

Bio: Marc is professor emeritus of ecology and evolutionary biology at the University of Colorado, Boulder. He has won many awards for his scientific research including a Guggenheim Fellowship and the Exemplar Award from the Animal Behavior Society for long-term contributions to the field of animal behavior. Marc has published more than 30 books and three encyclopedias, and writes regularly for Psychology Today on "all things dog" and various topics focusing on animal cognition, animal emotions, and compassionate conservation. His homepage is marcbekoff.com and, with Jane Goodall, ethologicalethics.org.

Companion Animal Psychology is a participant in the Amazon Services LLC Associates Program, an affiliate advertising program designed to provide a means for sites to earn advertising fees by advertising and linking to Amazon.com and affiliated sites. Companion Animal Psychology is also a participant in the Etsy Affiliate Program, an affiliate advertising program designed to provide a means for sites to earn advertising fees by advertising and linking to Etsy.com.

Standards in Dog Training and Realistic Expectations

The latest in the 'better world' series about dogs and cats.

For more information, you can read how to make the world better for dogs and how to make the world better for cats.

Companion Animal Psychology Book Club April 2018

"How Dogs Love Us answers the age-old question of dog lovers everywhere..."

The Companion Animal Psychology Book Club choice for April 2018  is How Dogs Love Us: A Neuroscientist and His Adopted Dog Decode the Canine Brain by Gregory Berns.

From the back cover,

"The powerful bond between humans and dogs is one that’s uniquely cherished. Loyal, obedient, and affectionate, they are truly “man’s best friend.” But do dogs love us the way we love them? Emory University neuroscientist Gregory Berns had spent decades using MRI imaging technology to study how the human brain works, but a different question still nagged at him: What is my dog thinking?

After his family adopted Callie, a shy, skinny terrier mix, Berns decided that there was only one way to answer that question—use an MRI machine to scan the dog’s brain. His colleagues dismissed the idea. Everyone knew that dogs needed to be restrained or sedated for MRI scans. But if the military could train dogs to operate calmly in some of the most challenging environments, surely there must be a way to train dogs to sit in an MRI scanner."

Will you be reading too?



Companion Animal Psychology is a participant in the Amazon Services LLC Associates Program, an affiliate advertising program designed to provide a means for sites to earn advertising fees by advertising and linking to Amazon.com and affiliated sites. Companion Animal Psychology is also a participant in the Etsy Affiliate Program, an affiliate advertising program designed to provide a means for sites to earn advertising fees by advertising and linking to Etsy.com.