How Can I Tell if My Dog is Afraid?

A guide to spotting fearful body language in dogs, and a chance to test out your skills.

Photo: Utekhina Anna / Shutterstock

You have to learn to read dog body language if you want to know when or if your dog is afraid.  This is a guide to spotting the signs.

Many people find it hard to tell when their dog is afraid and may even think their dog is okay when that’s not the case. This is very common but it can mean people are risking being bitten without knowing. And we can look after our dogs better if we know how to read canine body language.

Dog Body Language: Signs of Fear, Anxiety and Stress

There are many signs of fear, anxiety and stress in dogs. Things to look for include a tucked tail, ears back, licking the lips or nose, whale eye (wide eyes showing the whites of the eyes), looking away, lifting a paw, trembling or shaking, a low body posture, yawning, panting, grooming, sniffing, seeking out people (e.g. looking for comfort from you), hiding, not moving, a stiff or frozen posture, urinating and defecating.

Some of these are what’s known as displacement activities. For example, sniffing and grooming. Yes, it’s possible the dog is sniffing an exciting smell, but if the dog is scared, the sniffing is likely a displacement activity.

Similarly, a dog may yawn because they are tired, but it could be a sign of stress. If you see a yawn, ask yourself why they might be yawning.

Body Language of a Happy Dog

People find it much easier to tell when a dog is happy.

Look for a relaxed body posture, a soft open mouth, relaxed eyes, relaxed ears (whether the dog has prick or floppy ears), a nice loose wagging tail (that sometimes involves the whole body wiggling), and maybe some playful behaviour.

That soft, open mouth is like a dog’s way of smiling. You may see some teeth, but the lips are not drawn back to show lots of teeth and the dog is not snarling or growling.

Photo: Mila Atkovska / Shutterstock

Use All the Body Parts When Reading Dog Body Language

One thing to remember is that we can use all of the dog’s body language and not just concentrate on specific parts.

Experts use more body parts when assessing a dog’s body language, and they are more likely to pay attention to a dog’s ears (Wan et al 2012). In terms of recognizing fearful dogs, people said they particularly found the face useful (including ears, eyes and mouth).

Take the Context into Account

As well as looking at the dog’s body language, we should also take account of what is going on at the time, as this will help us determine how the dog is feeling.

There are some situations in which we might expect dogs to be scared, such as at the veterinarian or when there are fireworks, but studies show people still aren’t very good at reading dog’s body language.

30% of dogs are highly stressed in the vet’s waiting room but owners did not always recognize this (Mariti et al 2015). The most commonly-observed signs include nose licking, panting, low ears, grooming, crying and yawning.

Many people also miss signs that their dog is afraid of fireworks (Blackwell, Bradshaw and Casey, 2013).  Signs include trembling or shaking, barking, hiding, and seeking out people.

Another time when people tend to miss fearful or anxious body language is when dogs are interacting with small children. Unfortunately, in these circumstances many people think anxious dogs are actually relaxed and confident, and dog owners performed worse than those without dogs at reading the body language (DeMirbas et al 2016).  People do not supervise dog-child interactions closely enough, fail to recognize the dog’s body language, and especially let their guard down when the dog is the family dog rather than an unknown dog (Arhant et al 2016).

One time when it can be quite difficult to decide if a dog is afraid or not is leash reactivity, when the dog lunges and growls at other dogs. This can be to make the other dog go away, because the dog is afraid, but it can also be because the dog is frustrated the leash is preventing the opportunity of greeting the other dog. In the latter case, the dog will be prosocial and friendly with other dogs when off-leash, but the behaviour in the moment of growling and lunging can be hard to interpret.

It’s important to figure it out because it would be a real shame to prevent off-leash socializing for a friendly dog who likes to play with other dogs. This is one reason it's important to help people understand signs of play in dogs, like the play bow (see also: bringing play back for sequestered dogs).

As well as knowing whether the dog is usually friendly to other dogs, there are some body language signs. In cases of frustration, the dog may show signs of wanting to approach the other dog before it ‘goes off’, and there may be signs of excitement such as yawning or circling. If it’s fear, the dog may show signs of fear before ‘going off’, such as ears back, a low posture, looking away and a tucked tail (Mills et al 2014).

If you think a dog is afraid, don't try to pet them. See how to pet cats and dogs to learn how to give pets a choice.

Breed and Other Artefacts

When we look at dogs, we see different characteristics depending on the breed. Some dogs have pricked ears while others have floppy ears. Some dogs have lovely long tails while others have tails that are corkscrew or naturally short. Does this make a difference to body language? You bet!

Then there are the cosmetic changes that some people make to their dogs. While ear cropping and tail docking of dogs is banned in BC where I live, these procedures are unfortunately still legal in some places.

The tail is an important part of canine communication. Tail docking can interfere with communication between dogs, and between dogs and people (Mellor, 2018).

When interpreting dog body language, it is harder for us if the dog’s ears are cropped and/or the tail docked. How can you tell if the tail is low or not if it is only a little stub? And it’s harder for other dogs to recognize too, which can put the dog at a disadvantage in social canine interactions.

Dogs in Costumes

When dogs wear costumes, like Santa outfits or Halloween costumes, it can make it difficult to interpret their body language too. The costume can interfere with the dog’s communication.

For example, the costume might fix their ears in a particular position, so we can’t tell where they would be if the dog weren’t wearing the costume. And a costume can interfere with movement of the tail or other parts of the body too.

Many dogs don’t like to wear costumes.

It’s not fair to make your dog wear a costume when they hate it. So, if you want them to wear a costume and they don’t like it, you can use it as an opportunity to teach them to like it. This can be good practice at learning to like being handled, which some dogs also don’t like, but which has to happen e.g. at the vet or if the dog has to wear a rain jacket or sweater in winter.

Even if you think your dog will like the costume, it’s best to use treats when you first introduce it. See the best dog training treats for ideas.

Dog Body Language Practice

It’s Christmas in July! Take a look at these dogs in Santa costumes and see if you can figure out the meaning of the dog's body language.

To make it easier, let’s stick to two categories: ‘happy’ and ‘worried,’ where worried means showing any signs of fear, anxiety or stress. But it's more about seeing if you can spot any signs than assigning a label.

Of course, each photo is just a moment in time and the dog may have been showing different body language before and after (since I’ve been browsing the photos, I can vouch for this). That's the disadvantage of looking at photos instead of video. You can only decide for the specific moment in time captured in the photo.

On the other hand, body language can be fleeting, and with a photo you have time to contemplate the whole picture.

Instead of concentrating on labels – happy or worried – take note of the body language signs you are using to make that decision. Look where the tail is (if it's visible in the photo). Look at the mouth and eyes. Look at the ears, and take into account whether the dog put them in position or if the costume has affected their movement. And don't forget to consider posture too.

If you’re struggling, start by identifying the dogs which are definitely happy, and take it from there, because people seem to find it easier to identify a happy dog.

If you like, you can leave a comment on the body language you see.

Dog Body Language Quiz Photo 1

Dog Body Language Quiz Photo 2

Dog Body Language Quiz Photo 3

Dog Body Language Quiz Photo 4

Dog Body Language Quiz Photo 5

Dog Body Language Quiz Photo 6

Dog Body Language Quiz Photo 7

What if My Dog is Afraid?

This list contains affiliate links, which means that if you make a purchase I may earn a small fee at no cost to you.

Getting more practice at reading a dog's body language can help us know when dogs are fearful, anxious or stressed. I recommend:

• Barbara Handelman's Canine Behavior: A Photo Illustrated Handbook for lots of photos, 
• the book From Fearful to Fear Free: A Positive Program to Free Your Dog from Anxiety, Fears, and Phobias by Marty Becker et al., 
• and The Cautious Canine-How to Help Dogs Conquer Their Fears by Patricia McConnell.

There are many ways we can help a fearful dog. Often, simply recognizing the fear means we can do something to help, such as by intervening to prevent someone from patting our dog when the dog doesn’t want it, or removing the dog from a difficult situation. Sometimes, it can take a long and gradual training program to make a difference. See eight tips to help fearful dogs feel safe.

A powerful technique to help dogs overcome their fears is desensitization and counter-conditioning.

Because it can be hard to get it right, you might like to find a good dog trainer to help. In some cases, you may also wish to speak to your veterinarian to find out if they advise the use of medication.

Some trainers use a technique called negative reinforcement with fearful dogs. This is an aversive method. To see why I do not recommend it and what I suggest instead, see my post on negative reinforcement in dog training. You might also like seven reasons to use reward-based methods in dog training.

If your dog is afraid at the vet, see my list of resources on less stressful vet visits for dogs and cats. You might also like to check out Fear Free to see if there is a Fear Free veterinarian near you.

And you might be interested in the Husbandry Project from the Academy for Dog Trainers, which is currently recruiting dog owners and trainers to test out training plans aimed at teaching dogs to like vet visits. More info here.

Companion Animal Psychology is open to everyone and supported by animal lovers like you. If you like what you see, maybe buy me a coffee on Ko-fi?


Subscribe to Companion Animal Psychology to learn more about how to have happier dogs and cats (according to science). And stay tuned for more posts on this blog!


References
Arhant, C., Landenberger, R., Beetz, A., & Troxler, J. (2016). Attitudes of caregivers to supervision of child–family dog interactions in children up to 6 years—An exploratory study. Journal of Veterinary Behavior: Clinical Applications and Research, 14, 10-16. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jveb.2016.06.007
Blackwell, E.J.,, Bradshaw, J.W.S.,, & Casey, R.A. (2013). Fear responses to noise in domestic dogs: Prevalence, risk factors and co-occurrence with other fear-related behaviour Applied Animal Behaviour Science : 10.1016/j.applanim.2012.12.004
Demirbas, Y. S., Ozturk, H., Emre, B., Kockaya, M., Ozvardar, T., & Scott, A. (2016). Adults’ Ability to Interpret Canine Body Language during a Dog–Child Interaction. Anthrozoös, 29(4), 581-596. http://www.tandfonline.com/doi/abs/10.1080/08927936.2016.1228750
Mariti, C., Raspanti, E., Zilocchi, M., Carlone, B., & Gazzano, A. (2015). The assessment of dog welfare in the waiting room of a veterinary clinic Animal Welfare, 24 (3), 299-305 DOI: 10.7120/09627286.24.3.299
Mellor, D. J. (2018). Tail Docking of Canine Puppies: Reassessment of the Tail’s Role in Communication, the Acute Pain Caused by Docking and Interpretation of Behavioural Responses. Animals: an open access journal from MDPI, 8(6). 10.3390/ani8060082
Mills, D., Karagiannis, C., & Zulch, H. (2014). Stress—its effects on health and behavior: a guide for practitioners. Veterinary Clinics: Small Animal Practice, 44(3), 525-541. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cvsm.2014.01.005
Wan M, Bolger N, & Champagne FA (2012). Human perception of fear in dogs varies according to experience with dogs. PloS one, 7 (12) PMID: 23284765

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What is Desensitization and Counter-Conditioning in Dog Training?

A user-friendly guide to desensitization and counter-conditioning for fearful dogs.

Photo: Alzbeta / Shutterstock

Whether you want to use counter-conditioning to get your dog to like other dogs, or desensitization to teach your dog that alone-time is okay, this guide is for you. It explains what these technical terms mean – and, importantly, the tips you need to know to get it right.

First, we’ll look at how to spot a fearful dog, because these techniques are often used to help resolve different kinds of fear.

Sometimes, desensitization and/or counter-conditioning are used alongside medication. If you are concerned about your pet or want to know if medication might help your dog, speak to your veterinarian.

Recognizing signs of fear in dogs

It can be difficult to recognize signs of fear in dogs, and people often miss it, even in situations where we know many dogs are afraid (e.g. fear at the vet or in response to loud noises).

This means many dogs are not being helped with their fears because their owner does not realize their dog is afraid. Another issue is that when dogs are afraid of fireworks, people may do their best to help their dog cope at the time – and then forget about the problem until a night like Halloween or 4th of July is coming up again.

When is the best time to start to help your dog get over their fear of fireworks? It’s actually right now, because this is something that takes time.

Some of the signs of fear to look for in your dog are a tucked tail, ears back, lip licking, looking away, lifting a paw, trembling or shaking, a lowered body posture, yawning, grooming, sniffing, seeking out people (e.g. looking for comfort from you), hiding, not moving, urinating and defecating.

For more information and some practice at spotting signs of stressed body language, see how can I tell if my dog is afraid?

Systematic desensitization

Desensitization means very gradual exposure to the scary thing, starting at a very low level and building up very slowly. It should be systematic, which means you have a plan to build up gradually. At every step on the way, you dog should be happy and comfortable.

If instead you notice your dog is even a tiny bit scared, you need to immediately go back to an easier stage of the plan. If you jump ahead too fast and frighten your dog, then you might be doing sensitization (making it worse) instead of desensitization!

As an example, suppose your dog is afraid of fireworks. You find a recording of firework sounds (such as the recordings from Dogs Trust that come with a booklet explaining what to do). You can’t start by playing the sounds at anywhere near normal volume, because you already know that frightens your dog. Instead, you start at a really low volume – maybe even barely audible.

Then gradually over time, always making sure your dog is comfortable, you keep turning up the volume a notch. Then another notch. And so on. Over time, assuming you get it right, your dog will learn to tolerate the sounds.

Counter-conditioning

Counter-conditioning is a type of classical conditioning. Have you heard about Ivan Pavlov and his dogs, how when he rang a bell the dogs salivated because they had learned it predicted they would be given food? Then you’ve heard of classical conditioning!

Classical conditioning involves automatic responses, like salivation, changes in heart rate, or nausea. These are involuntary reactions (not behaviours).

Most classical conditioning uses a neutral stimulus (like the sound of a bell). In counter-conditioning, we are trying to teach the dog to like something they already don’t like or are afraid of.

For example, suppose you have a dog that is afraid of other dogs, and you want to teach her to like them. In counter-conditioning, every time another dog appears, you would give your dog some very delicious food. Over time, she will learn that other dogs predict yummy food, and so she will learn to like other dogs.

Did you notice I said every time another dog appears? That’s because we want to have what’s known as a 1:1 ratio. If instead, sometimes when another dog appears your dog gets food, but sometimes when another dog appears they don’t, this won’t work very well.

Therefore, if you’re counter-conditioning something you might run into outside training sessions (like other dogs), you need to have a plan to either manage it (so it doesn’t happen) or to always have treats on you so you can still do counter-conditioning on those occasions too.

Open bar/closed bar

Jean Donaldson’s open bar/closed bar technique is a great way to do counter-conditioning. What it means is that when the scary thing appears (e.g. the other dog, or the sounds, etc…) the bar is open: treats will keep on flowing. Yay! It’s like a party! (Hopefully that’s what your dog will think).

Then when the scary thing stops (e.g. the other dog goes away, the sound stops, etc.) the bar is closed and the flow of treats stops. Now, nothing happens – the party is over.

A positive conditioned emotional response

Learning to recognize a positive conditioned emotional response is an essential part of doing desensitization and counter-conditioning, because you can’t move on to the next step until you’ve got a +CER.

Look for signs that the dog is happy and expecting food, such as a wagging tail and a happy, open mouth.

Desensitization and counter-conditioning

Desensitization and counter-conditioning are often used together. Trainers often abbreviate it to dscc.

If we stick to the example of a dog who is afraid of other dogs, we can use desensitization by keeping a suitable distance from the other dog. We should also take account of other aspects of the experience (for example, a moving dog might be more scary to your dog than one that is still, so a moving dog would need to be further away).

At the same time, we can use counter-conditioning by feeding delicious food as soon as your dog notices the other dog. Using these two techniques together works really well.

Desensitization and counter-conditioning is a good alternative to negative reinforcement because it does not involve aversive experiences for the dog.

There are some cases where we might use desensitization on its own. An example is to help a dog with separation anxiety get used to being left alone for gradually-increasing periods of time. The good news is that new technology can help in separation anxiety cases, because it enables you to see video of your dog at home to check she really is okay.

If your dog has separation anxiety, as well as speaking to your veterinarian, I recommend trainers with a certification called CSAT (Certified Separation Anxiety Trainer). They are specialists in resolving this problem, and many offer distance consults.

And at times when desensitization is not possible (or, due to a mishap, went wrong), you can still use counter-conditioning on its own.

Some common mistakes

There are some common mistakes that people make with desensitization and counter-conditioning. If you’re thinking, “I tried it and it didn’t work,” see if any of these might apply.

Not using good enough food

A common mistake is to not use good enough food. For counter-conditioning, I recommend using good food like chicken, cheese, or roast beef. For more ideas, see the best dog training treats.

Getting the timing mixed up

Your aim in counter-conditioning is to teach your dog that the scary thing predicts good stuff like great food. Have you ever had the experience of doing counter-conditioning, and then finding that when you offer your dog food, she starts looking round to see where the scary thing is? That means the timing was wrong and the dog now thinks food predicts something scary!

The thing to look for is when your dog notices the other dog (or whatever the scary thing is), and feed then. You have to pay attention to your dog in order to get this right.

Going too fast

This is probably the most common mistake of all: starting at too hard a level and going too fast for your dog.

Learning how to do desensitization and counter-conditioning will teach you to slow down, because you have to go at the dog’s pace. This will vary from dog to dog, but it will usually be very slow at the start. Then hopefully it will speed up along the way. But this dog training technique is not for the impatient!

Signs you are going too fast include the dog having a harder mouth when taking treats or only sometimes being interested in treats. Also watch out for any signs of worried body language such as a low tail or low posture. If you see any of these, go back to an easier step in the plan.

Not reading the dog’s body language

Learning how to read a dog’s body language is a skill that times time to acquire. To use desensitization and counter-conditioning, you need to be able to recognize when a dog is afraid (so you know these techniques are relevant, and so you notice if you accidentally go too fast). If the dog is afraid, you risk making things much worse instead of better.

You also need to be able to recognize when you have got a positive conditioned emotional response – a happy reaction to the previously-scary thing. It’s only when you see this that you can move to the next step in your plan.

Using a clicker

When we use a clicker in dog training, it’s to mark a behaviour that will be rewarded. In counter-conditioning, we are not teaching a behaviour; instead, we are trying to change the dog’s emotions. So there is no behaviour to click.

Even if you love using a clicker when doing operant conditioning (teaching a behaviour), put it away when doing counter-conditioning.

But I only want to feed the dog for being good

Sometimes people only want to feed the dog for being good. But the thing is, counter-conditioning isn’t about behaviour; it’s about changing the dog’s underlying feelings. So it does not matter what your dog is doing.

Sometimes we make a mistake and get too close to the scary thing. We’ve all done it! For example if you get too close to another dog and your dog lunges and growls at it. Sometimes people compound this mistake by telling the dog off for lunging and growling, but this won’t help and might make things worse.

Instead, you should get your dog further away from the other dog and then offer the yummy food anyway. The reason is that in counter-conditioning they should get the food every single time they see the scary thing. If they don’t, it’s basically an extinction trial that is starting to undo your training.

This can be quite difficult to do in public with other people looking on. But you shouldn’t feel embarrassed for doing the right thing for your dog.

So if your dog goes over threshold, get away as fast as you can and then feed them anyway. Of course, you might also like to say sorry to the owner of the dog yours just growled at as you move away, but you don’t have to get into a discussion.

The other thing you need to do is make a mental note that next time, you need more distance. Think about whether there were other things going on that might have made it more difficult for your dog – this is known as trigger stacking. And then plan to do better next time.

Remember, you’re trying to teach your dog – but it’s also a learning experience for you.

What about a DRI instead?

Sometimes dog trainers will choose a DRI (differential reinforcement of an incompatible behaviour) instead of counter-conditioning, with the aim of getting a classical conditioning side-effect. You can read more about this, and about the factors that will help you decide which to do, in my post on negative reinforcement. (Look for the section on alternatives to negative reinforcement).

A word on punishment

If you have a dog that is fearful or afraid, it’s important that you stop using punishment on your dog. Punishment is stressful and there is a risk it will make your dog’s fear worse, or even make your dog afraid of you. Punishment may suppress behaviour, but it does not teach your dog what you would like them to do instead. For more information, see my post on positive punishment in dog training.

If you are using any kind of punishment (including prong and shock collars), stop. This is an important part of helping a fearful dog.

Summary

Desensitization and counter-conditioning are powerful techniques that we can use to help dogs learn to like something they are afraid of. They can be used in many dog training situations, from fear of loud noises to fear of being left alone, fear of implements like nail clippers and stethoscopes, and fear of strangers.

These techniques are more advanced than obedience training, and it will take practice (and a good plan) to learn to get them right. Hopefully this article has helped explain the basics. You can also check out eight tips to help fearful dogs feel safe.

If you need help with your dog’s issues, see my article on how to choose a dog trainer.

Subscribe to Companion Animal Psychology to learn more about how to have happy dogs and cats.

Further Reading

Interview with Jean Donaldson about The Culture Clash

Dogs Are from Neptune by Jean Donaldson.

The Trainable Cat: A Practical Guide to Making Life Happier for You and Your Cat by John Bradshaw and Sarah Ellis. Systematic desensitization and counter-conditioning is one of the key skills taught in this book, and there are plenty of examples of its use with cats.

From Fearful to Fear Free: A Positive Program to Free Your Dog from Anxiety, Fears, and Phobias by Marty Becker, Lisa Radosta, Wailani Sung, Mikkel Becker, edited by Kim Campbell Thornton. Lots of tips, including sections on desensitization and counter-conditioning.

Excel-erated Learning: Explaining in plain English how dogs learn and how best to teach them by Pamela Reid.


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What is Negative Reinforcement in Dog Training?

A user-friendly guide to understanding negative reinforcement in dog training – and the three alternatives you should know about.

Photo: Angyalosi Beata /Shutterstock

If you are new to dog training, or want to understand some of the language of dog training, this article is for you. It covers the technical definition of negative reinforcement in dog training, examples of how it is used, what research tells us about negative reinforcement, and alternatives that you can use instead (along with some common mistakes people make, so you know how to get it right).

This article is part of a series of guides that also covers positive reinforcement and positive punishment in dog training.

Let’s start with the technical definition.

What is negative reinforcement?

Negative reinforcement is one way to train dogs (and other animals).

Negative reinforcement means taking something away that increases or maintains the frequency of a behaviour.

The ‘negative’ part refers to something being removed, and ‘reinforcement’ means the behaviour went up in frequency. (If it instead occurred less often, it wouldn’t be reinforcement).

So what kind of thing can you take away to make a behaviour more likely to happen? Something that is unpleasant and which the dog does not like.

Examples of negative reinforcement in dog training

One example of negative reinforcement is when the dog’s bottom is pushed to force the dog into a sit, and then released once the dog is in a sit. Assuming the behaviour of sitting goes up in frequency, the behaviour was negatively reinforced by the removal of the pressure on the dog’s rear end.

Another example of negative reinforcement involves applying an electronic dog training collar until the dog does the behaviour you want – let’s say it’s ‘sit’ again. As soon as the dog sits, the shock is turned off. The thing that is removed is the unpleasant sensation from the shock collar, and the behaviour of ‘sit’ is more likely to happen and hence has been reinforced. (Note that not all electronic collars allow for this type of training. Some models will apply the shock for a fixed time of 11 seconds after the button is pressed; read why there are calls for shock collars to be banned or about a study of using shock collars for recall training).

Another example of negative reinforcement is sometimes used when working with a dog that is afraid, e.g. of other dogs. When another dog is close by, the handler waits until the dog offers a particular behaviour (such as looking at the handler) before allowing the dog to move away. Here, the behaviour of looking at the handler after seeing another dog is being reinforced by taking away the scary situation of being too close to another dog.

I’m not suggesting these are good ways to train your dog. In fact we’ll get to some alternatives in a moment.

Research shows risks with negative reinforcement in dog training

In order to use negative reinforcement, something aversive has to be applied first so that it can then be removed contingent on the dog doing the behaviour you are teaching.

Let’s say you’re teaching sit. Typically what happens is that whatever behaviour the dog was doing before the sit – let’s say, standing – goes down in frequency and is replaced by the sit. Technically speaking, in this scenario the behaviour of standing is positively punished (read more about positive punishment).

Unfortunately, applying an aversive – such as an electronic shock or pressure on the dog’s neck or body – has risks for the dog’s welfare. Research shows that using aversive methods in dog training is associated with an increased risk of fear and aggression, and may even be less effective. It’s better to use reward-based methods (see more on why more people don’t use positive reinforcement to train dogs).

Most of the research on dog training methods has focussed on comparing reward-based methods to aversive methods. For example, in a 2014 study of aggression in dogs, the use of positive punishment and/or negative reinforcement was associated with an increased risk of aggression of 2.9 times for aggression towards family members, and 2.2 times towards unfamiliar people outside of the house (Casey et al 2014). In this study, barking, lunging, growling and biting were all considered to be aggression.

Photo: alexei_tm / Shutterstock

But there is one study that looked specifically at the use of negative reinforcement in dog training (Deldalle and Gaunet, 2014).

This study compared dogs taking an advanced dog training class at two different schools: one that used positive reinforcement and one that used negative reinforcement. The dogs had already completed a basic dog training class at the same school.

Negative reinforcement was used to teach loose leash walking by tugging on the leash while the dog was at a distance from the owner, and stopping tugging when the dog was close by. Sit was taught by both pulling the leash up and pushing the dog’s bottom down and only releasing when the dog was in the sit position. At the other school, positive reinforcement was used to reward the dog for doing the right behaviour.

The results showed that dogs in the negative reinforcement group:

• Rarely looked at their owners when walking on leash, compared to those taught with positive reinforcement. This is unfortunate because trainers want the dog’s attention
• Showed more mouth licks and yawns when practicing the ‘sit’ command, and were more likely to have a low body posture, all signs of stress

The study concludes that training dogs with positive reinforcement is better for the human-canine relationship than using negative reinforcement.

As mentioned above, negative reinforcement is sometimes used when the dog is afraid of something. Unfortunately in this case negative reinforcement involves keeping the dog in a situation where they are afraid until they have done the required behaviour. There is a risk of sensitization (making the dog more afraid) or flooding which can cause learned helplessness (in everyday language we might describe this as being “shut down”).

Besides which, it violates the principle that the first priority with a scared dog is to help them feel safe. There is no need to put your dog in a situation where they feel fear in order to train them.

While we still need more research on dog training methods, it is better not to risk negative effects if we don’t need to. Many professional organizations recommend the use of reward-based methods (see: seven reasons to use reward-based dog training methods).

So what are the alternatives to negative reinforcement? There is more than one alternative to negative reinforcement, depending on the situation.

The best alternative to negative reinforcement for obedience behaviours

As you can guess from the previous section, one of the alternatives to using negative reinforcement is to train with positive reinforcement instead. This is a great choice for teaching obedience behaviours like sit, lie down, and loose leash walking.

A common mistake is to use something the trainer thinks will be reinforcing but which the dog doesn’t particularly care about, like praise. That’s why I suggest to anyone new to dog training to use food to train their dogs (for more information, read the ultimate dog training tip).

Photo: Nina Buday / Shutterstock

When teaching loose leash walking with positive reinforcement, you may also find it helpful to use a no-pull harness. This is a harness with a clip on the front designed to prevent pulling (note that some harnesses have a clip on the back and are designed to facilitate pulling instead – don’t accidentally get the wrong kind!). A no-pull harness is not harmful and does not compromise dogs’ welfare (Grainger et al 2016). (Some dogs with body handling issues may need a gradual introduction to having the harness put on and lots of yummy treats to help them learn to like it).

Alternatives to negative reinforcement when the dog is afraid

But what about when we’re not teaching basic obedience? You may remember one of the examples above relates to using negative reinforcement when the dog is afraid, and the aversive stimulus is the thing the dog is scared of.

If the dog is afraid, then you have two great options: positive reinforcement to teach a different behaviour (which dog trainers call DRI, or differential reinforcement of an incompatible behaviour); or counter-conditioning with or without desensitization.

Let’s stick with the example of a dog that is afraid of other dogs. In the negative reinforcement case, the dog was being asked to look at the handler before being allowed to move away from the other dog.

If we use positive reinforcement instead, we would not get close enough to the other dog for our dog to be scared; instead, we would stay at a safe distance (from the dog’s perspective, even if that’s an inconveniently long way away). We could still use the behaviour of looking at the handler; every time the dog sees another dog, you encourage him to look at you and reinforce with some good food.

Over time, the cue could be seeing the other dog so that any time your dog sees another dog, he will look to you for his piece of food. If, every single time he sees another dog, you ask him to look at you and then reinforce that behaviour, what will happen over time is that your dog will begin to learn that seeing another dog is a good thing, and this is actually a classical conditioning side effect.

So now let’s look at the counter-conditioning option. Counter-conditioning is a type of classical conditioning. You would not get close enough to the other dog for your dog to be scared, but would deliberately stay at a safe distance where your dog is happy and comfortable. Every time another dog is in sight, you would give your dog yummy food. He doesn’t have to do anything in order to get the food, just realize that the other dog is there. What you are trying to do is change the association, so that your dog learns other dogs are a good thing because they predict yummy food.

Photo: PH888 / Shutterstock

Even though one of these is operant conditioning (positive reinforcement) and the other is classical conditioning (in this case, counter-conditioning) there are some similarities.

In both cases you’re hoping eventually to change the dog’s feelings about something scary, it's just that one method focuses on this aim while with the other method it's a side-effect.

In both cases it is important to keep your dog at a safe distance where they don’t feel scared, otherwise you risk undermining your training (and perhaps accidentally using negative reinforcement).

And in both cases, your dog will get food (or another great reward such as a quick game of tug). It’s just that in the positive reinforcement option they will have to do something to earn the food, and in counter-conditioning they don't have to do anything; the food happens because another dog appeared.

For more tips on fearful dogs, see eight tips to help fearful dogs feel safe.

Some Common Mistakes

A common mistake is to push things too fast and to accidentally go ‘over threshold’ – in other words, put the dog in a situation where they are in fact scared. If this happens, move quickly back to a safe distance, and resolve not to let it happen again.

You may also need to brush up on your skills at reading canine body language, which is nothing to be ashamed of as it takes time and experience. We all keep on learning from the dogs we spend time with. For more on the signs of fear, anxiety and stress, see how can I tell if my dog is afraid? You might also like the website iSpeakDog; and there is also a great book called Canine Behavior: A Photo Illustrated Handbook by Barbara Handelman. You might also like to read about the role of experience in recognizing fear in dogs.

Another common mistake with the DRI option is to make it too hard. You actually need to make it really easy for your dog because you want them to earn the treat every time so as to start getting a classical conditioning side effect. The behaviour doesn’t have to be 'watch me', it could be 'leave it' or 'sit' or a nose-touch or something else instead. Just make sure to keep it nice and easy (which may include practicing at home first).

Another common mistake is not being ready to give the food fast enough. If you’re using the DRI option, you should feed as soon as the dog has done the behaviour requested. If you’re doing classical conditioning, you should feed as soon as your dog sees the other dog. Either way, you need to have your treats ready, hidden on your person (in a pocket or bait bag), and be paying attention, so you get your timing right.

Whichever approach you are using, use food rewards that your dog really likes, and don’t be stingy, because that would be another mistake.

Photo: Monkey Business Images / Shutterstock

Which is the best approach, DRI or classical conditioning?

Which of these two techniques works best? We don’t know. Both approaches work!  I don’t know of any research which investigated which is the best option in a real-life dog training situation.

With both techniques, it is important to go at the dog’s pace, so the speed of learning is the one that the dog is comfortable with.

With the DRI option, the dog learns a new behaviour and gets a classical conditioning side effect. With the classical conditioning option, often you will find that the dog learns a new behaviour too (called a superstitious behaviour), such as looking at your bait bag after seeing the other dog, because they have learned that seeing the other dog predicts food and that’s where the food will come from. One reason you might choose desensitization and counter-conditioning over a DRI is when you don't have control over the scary thing, whatever it is. In our example, if other dogs are popping up all over the place (which is a common problem), you might find your DRI keeps being too hard, which means your dog is not able to earn the treats in the presence of all the other dogs, undermining your classical conditioning side-effect. In this case, you could find somewhere else to train where things are a lot more predictable, or just decide to start with counter-conditioning instead.

Another reason you might choose desensitization and counter-conditioning is if your dog is actually very afraid, rather than a mild fear. In this case, it's probably better to concentrate your efforts on gradually developing a positive conditioned emotional response (counter-conditioning).

If your dog is fearful and you are concerned, see your veterinarian in case medication and/or referral to a veterinary behaviourist is advised.

I find that some people seem to have a natural preference for either operant or classical conditioning, so if this applies to you and both approaches seem suitable, then you can let your own preference guide you to the approach you prefer.

If you need ideas for treats to use in training, see the best dog training treats.

Working with a reactive dog can be tricky. If you need some help, check out the web page CARE for reactive dogs, which clearly explains how to use desensitization, counter-conditioning and positive reinforcement when working with a reactive dog. If you have a fearful dog, you might like the website fearfuldogs.com. The associated Facebook group is a friendly place to ask questions about helping your dog.

And if you need help, find a good dog trainer to work with you and your dog. And look out for for some more relevant posts coming here soon.

You might also like: Can dog training books be trusted? and dominance training deprives dogs of positive experiences. And if you want to delve into the scientific research on dog training methods, check out my dog training research resources page.

What is your favourite dog training technique?

Further Reading

The following books are useful guides to dog training and understanding your dog:

It's Me or the Dog: How to Have the Perfect Pet by Victoria Stilwell.
The Power of Positive Dog Training by Pat Miller.
Culture Clash and Train Your Dog Like a Pro by Jean Donaldson.
The Cautious Canine-How to Help Dogs Conquer Their Fears by Patricia McConnell.
Don't Shoot the Dog: The New Art of Teaching and Training by Karen Pryor.
Canine Behavior: A Photo Illustrated Handbook by Barbara Handelman.
From Fearful to Fear Free: A Positive Program to Free Your Dog from Anxiety, Fears, and Phobias by Marty Becker, Lisa Radosta, Mikkel Becker and Wailani Sung, edited by Kim Campbell Thornton.

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References

Casey, R. A., Loftus, B., Bolster, C., Richards, G. J., & Blackwell, E. J. (2014). Human directed aggression in domestic dogs (Canis familiaris): Occurrence in different contexts and risk factors. Applied Animal Behaviour Science, 152, 52-63.
Deldalle, S., & Gaunet, F. (2014). Effects of 2 training methods on stress-related behaviors of the dog (Canis familiaris) and on the dog–owner relationship. Journal of Veterinary Behavior: Clinical Applications and Research, 9(2), 58-65.
Grainger, J., Wills, A., & Montrose, V. (2016). The behavioral effects of walking on a collar and harness in domestic dogs (Canis familiaris) Journal of Veterinary Behavior: Clinical Applications and Research, 14, 60-64 DOI: 10.1016/j.jveb.2016.06.002


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