Reasons to Be Positive About Being Positive in Dog Training

Why debunking out-dated ideas can backfire, the importance of spreading quality information, and the best ways to counteract the misleading duds.

Many dog trainers who rely on using reward-based methods feel passionately about the importance of using humane methods that don’t cause dogs to experience fear or pain. Thus, they feel it strongly when people use or share articles about methods that involve shock collars, dominance, pack ‘theory’, or any form of positive punishment, because they know aversive methods have risks for dogs. 

What are the best ways to counteract this kind of misleading information?

This is a question that preoccupies me (and many of you, I know) because it is such an important one for animal welfare. I’ve written before about the many factors that influence people’s choice of dog training methods (Todd, 2018) and in this post I want to look at some of those factors in more detail.

The importance of social norms in dog training

A social psychological approach called the theory of planned behaviour tells us that one of the factors that influences people’s behaviour is their perception of social norms. That is, the ways we think society in general believes people should behave.

When it comes to dog training, many of us have the belief that dogs should be treated with kindness, that our pets are treasured creatures who deserve to have choices in life and to be trained in ways that will provide joy and enrichment.

At least, that’s how regular readers of this blog feel. That’s one of the reasons I feel privileged to have such amazing readers. (Thank you!!).

But when we look at wider society, we can see that some people have quite different perceptions of social norms around dog training.

When we see TV programs demonstrating the use of shock collars and alpha rolls, bookstores selling dog training books that promote punishment-based approaches, and random internet people (or even celebrities or veterinarians) recommending trainers who use aversive methods, we can see a very different kind of social norm being created.

One way to counteract this is simply to spread (and keep on spreading) good quality information about the best ways to train dogs, effectively and with kindness.

But the way social media is designed can sometimes feel like it is working against us. Algorithms that promote posts that receive a lot of comments can make controversial posts spread like wildfire, which means that sometimes arguing against things on Facebook might backfire.

At the same time, it is important for there to be voices of reason and humanity, so the choice to engage or not is a personal one every time. Social psychologists know that even one different voice in a sea of similar opinions can make a difference.

Lewandosky et al (2017) write,

"People should be encouraged to make their voices heard, not just to directly persuade, but also to influence people's perceptions of norms and the prevalence of opinions, so that false-consensus effects do not arise. Even a few dissenting voices can shift the perceived social norm (i.e., the perceived range of acceptable views), thus legitimizing opposition and encouraging evidence-based discourse."

We can put those social media algorithms to good use when we see material we like. Positively reinforce the author by leaving a nice comment, and then again by sharing the post, and we’re telling those algorithms that this is the kind of content we want to see more of.

Stick to positive messages that will reinforce social norms that it is important to treat dogs with kindness. Photo: Rohappy/Shutterstock

Countering misinformation about dog training

Sadly the world is full of erroneous information about dogs (and many other topics too).

The problem is that countering misinformation is a tricky thing to do (Chan et al., 2017; Lewandowsky et al., 2017; Schwartz et al., 2016). We often hear these days that countering arguments with facts won’t change people’s minds. Actually it’s kind of complicated, and something we need more research on (if any communications scholars would like to take on the dog training world, there’s plenty of material here).

But one really important thing to remember is that repeating misinformation – even in order to correct it – can have a different effect to the one intended, in part because it causes that misinformation to feel more familiar and gives it the illusion of truth. This is called the illusory truth effect: repeating lies makes them seem more true.

This is one reason debunking false information can backfire.

If you must repeat the misinformation, at least preface it with a warning (e.g. “Some people still believe in the outdated notion that…”). And then give some correct information to take its place (e.g. “Your dog is growling because she is afraid”, mention the body language signals that demonstrate this, tell them what to do to make things better).

Schwarz et al. (2016) write,

"Overall, behavioral research shows that often the best strategy in the fight against misinformation is to paint a vivid and easily understood summation of the truthful message one wishes to impart instead of drawing further attention to false information."

Tug is another dog training topic where there's been a lot of misinformation, but it's a great game to play with your dog (and a good idea to let them win). Photo: Jasmin Awad/Shutterstock

Setting the agenda and sticking to it

Another reason not to repeat misinformation becomes obvious when we think about how dog trainers talk about punishment. One of the problems with using punishment to train dogs is that it only teaches a dog what not to do; it doesn’t teach them what to do instead.

Similarly, if we keep repeating misinformation in order to correct it, we are not spending that time teaching people what they should know instead.

Don’t let aversive trainers set the agenda.

We want to keep the conversation on our terms, and that means talking about the benefits of reward-based training and the technicalities of how to do it (because it is complicated and people often need coaching to do a great job of it).

Now maybe you’re thinking that I linked to posts on dominance and punishment and so on at the top of this article. Yes, I’ll put my hands up, I have written on those topics (although not necessarily in the way you’d expect).

In my defence, I spend most of my time writing about evidence-based ways to care for our pets. Luckily for me, this is where my interests lie.

If someone really wants to get into an argument, send them to the science to find out for themselves. You’ll find a list of scientific articles on dog training on my website.

This is just eye candy, but photos help people stay engaged with posts. Photo: Lisjatina/Shutterstock

Being wrong can sometimes be an identity threat

Sometimes people are very invested in ideas that are wrong (that they don’t know are wrong).

Imagine someone has been told by a dog trainer that in order to be a good dog owner, they must follow some kind of outdated method of dog training.

Because the person loves their dog, and because they trust their dog trainer, their own beliefs about being a good dog owner might be tied in to using the methods the trainer recommended.

In this case, when we tell someone that the idea is wrong, it’s possible they will perceive it as a threat to their own beliefs about being a good dog owner – in other words, a threat to their identity.

This can sometimes make them hang on to that idea even harder. So again, telling them the idea is wrong may have the opposite effect to the one intended.

It's better to put cognitive effort into correct ideas not misinformation

If the person then comes up with reasons why they think their idea is right after all, psychology tells us the view will likely become even more entrenched. When people think about reasons for the misinformation, it can make it harder for them to change their minds. Chan et al (2017) found that,

"people who generate arguments supporting misinformation struggle to later question and change their initial attitudes and beliefs."

If people are going to put cognitive effort into understanding something, it's best to encourage them to put that effort into thinking about the correct ideas rather than the wrong ones.

I think this idea will resonate with dog trainers, because we're used to telling people how important it is for the behaviours we want to be rehearsed many times, and to remove the opportunities for the wrong behaviour to be rehearsed. So there's an analogy that makes sense here.

We want people to put cognitive effort into the correct ideas, not into misinformation. Photo: ra2studio/Shutterstock

Research also shows that it is important to support people and build their confidence in using positive reinforcement if they are to use it in the future (Willams and Blackwell, 2019).

Education makes a difference

Helping people to understand why something is the case can help to counteract misinformation.

For dog lovers, this includes helping people to evaluate the credentials of dog trainers so that they can choose a good trainer. It means talking about the benefits of reward-based training methods, and how we know that they are humane and effective.

It means talking about cooperative veterinary care, low-stress handling, and Fear Free vet clinics. (One of the many things I love about Fear Free is that Fear Free vets know the importance of referring to reward-based trainers).

And it means finding ways to engage people and encourage them to participate, such as by scrutinizing claims or asking questions, as well as helping people trouble-shoot any issues they are having (such as helping them understand the need to use good dog training treats instead of kibble).

Photo: anetapics/Shutterstock

Spreading the good news

Misinformation can be hard to counter, and it takes valuable time and resources away from spreading the messages that we do want to get across. This is why it is so important to be positive about reward-based dog training and good animal welfare.

It’s one of the reasons I like to share great posts by others in my monthly newsletter, and to discuss good books in the Animal Book Club.

There are many people producing great content about dogs (and cats). Every time we share these articles, we are helping to contribute to a perceived social norm that the treatment of animals should be humane and in line with principles of good animal welfare. (And we are encouraging those trainers and authors to produce more such material too).

When TV companies or other organizations promote dog trainers who use outdated methods, we can let them know why that's a problem.

Other tactics we can use include recommending (or giving) good dog training books to friends when they get a new dog or are having issues with their pet. And we can simply talk about what we’ve learned about how to train our dogs, the struggles we’ve faced, and the resolutions we’ve found.

Changing behaviour isn’t just about individuals; it’s also about building a society that supports and encourages people to behave in good ways. There are many ways to do so, and I would like to thank you for what you are doing to promote good animal welfare.

It matters to every dog or other animal in our lives, because it affects their welfare. Dog training should be fun and make dogs happy.

Happier pets means happier people. It’s a great thing to aim for.

Summary

• Repeating misinformation (e.g. about dominance) can make it seem familiar and therefore true.
• If you must repeat it, give a warning about it first, and then provide new information to take its place.
• Even a few voices can make a difference to the perception of social norms. 
• Focus on the message you want to get across, and say or write it as clearly as possible.
• Help educate people on how to evaluate dog trainers’ credentials and information about dog training.
• Comment on and share good quality information to make it accessible to people and to show that the misinformation is not the norm.

If you're interested in this topic, you might like to know that I presented a webinar for the Pet Professional Guild entitled Debunk, Support Science, or Tell a Story? How to Communicate about Dog Training and Animal Welfare on Tuesday 16th July. The recording is available for purchase.

What do you think are the best ways to teach people about dog training methods?

Companion Animal Psychology is open to everyone and supported by animal lovers like you. If you like what you see, maybe buy me a coffee on Ko-fi?

References
Chan, M. P. S., Jones, C. R., Hall Jamieson, K., & Albarracin, D. (2017). Debunking: A meta-analysis of the psychological efficacy of messages countering misinformation. Psychological science, 28(11), 1531-1546. https://doi.org/10.1177/0956797617714579
Lewandowsky, S., Ecker, U. K., & Cook, J. (2017). Beyond misinformation: Understanding and coping with the “post-truth” era. Journal of Applied Research in Memory and Cognition, 6(4), 353-369. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jarmac.2017.07.008
Schwarz, N., Newman, E., & Leach, W. (2016). Making the truth stick & the myths fade: Lessons from cognitive psychology. Behavioral Science & Policy, 2(1), 85-95. 10.1353/bsp.2016.0009
Todd, Z. (2018). Barriers to the adoption of humane dog training methods. Journal of Veterinary Behavior, 25, 28-34. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jveb.2018.03.004
Williams, E. J., & Blackwell, E. (2019). Managing the Risk of Aggressive Dog Behavior: Investigating the Influence of Owner Threat and Efficacy Perceptions. Risk Analysis. https://doi.org/10.1111/risa.13336

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Into the Middle of Things: Dog Training Lessons from the Best Fiction

Why dog trainers are like stalwart detectives, and how it all begins mid-scene.

Guest post by Kristi Benson CTC

Photo: Anna Goroshnikova/Shutterstock

A while ago, a client got in touch asking for help with the family dog. The dog was a young and lovely Golden retriever, smart as a whip and sweet as pie. The problem? He was barking. A lot. As I packed up my bag of tricks, I grabbed a few different hand-outs to make sure I had all the usual suspects covered: boredom barking? Check. Fearful barking? Check. Guarding, alarm, attention, and play? Check, check, check. My bait bag and some treats followed the hand-outs into my bag and I was off to the races.

When a story  begins in the middle of some action, it’s called “in medias res”, which is a Latin term meaning "into the middle of things". Have you ever read a thriller that opens with the characters sitting around a table in a tense meeting of political hotshots? Or a murder mystery starting with a car chase, sirens whooping? The story starts part way in, and we, as the readers, must reconstruct what happened to get us to this place, either from the flashbacks that the author doles out, or from the story itself. It makes for some delicious reading, the fictional world opening up before us both forward and backward in time, with each turn of the page. Sometimes there are missing details that we only find out when the twisted threads of the plot are finally brought together, and sometimes there are red herrings that make us imagine we know what’s what, but are simple, or not-so-simple, redirection.

In some ways, this is a great metaphor for dog training. I’m not being arcane, I promise. A dog trainer almost always comes in part way through the story. But instead of a tense political meeting, it’s a dog who is tense around strangers, or fireworks, or at the dog park. Or maybe in the place of a car chase between the good guys and the bad guys, it’s a “dog actually chasing a car” scenario.

"As all of us who not-so-secretly enjoy formulaic fiction can tell you, there is nothing wrong with a formula that works."

When I arrived at my new client’s house, I found a dog who seemed a bit scared of me. He barked when I got in the door, his body lowered and tail tucked. I tossed him treats for a few minutes, over which he began to bark less and less. Once he had warmed to me and my treats, he acted towards me the same way he acted towards his own human family. He was waggling and climbing in my lap and all-round adorably happy. I asked the owners to let me know, in synopsis, all the contexts in which this dog barked. It quickly became clear that all of them had a single thing in common: new people.

Photo: Monika Wisniewska/Shutterstock

Dog trainers get good at asking the right questions, or ‘taking history’, as we call it. Just like how an author hands out details to his readers to build a fictional backstory, our clients need to give us important details on the dog’s backstory. We’ll ask, “what causes your dog to react in this way?” We’ll ask, “what makes it better? What makes it worse?” If the dog is biting...how hard? Whom? If the dog is scared, when? A dog trainer will get the details that we need to make a diagnosis, and a plan. We’ll build the backstory, to the degree that it matters.

And that’s actually another way that fictional writing is allegorical to professional dog training: we focus on what matters. The books you read are not ten billion pages. The entire family tree of the main character back to revolutionary France is not included. You do not learn the name of their favourite childhood doll nor the brand of coffee they bought in 1987. You, curled up in an armchair with a mug of mocha and a rare evening all to yourself, learn just what you need to know to make the story work.

And so it is with dog trainers. Our clients have limited resources, and we have limited time with them. We winnow our questions to just the most relevant ones, in order to get the backstory that matters. (In fact, random and wandering, irrelevant questions may be a good indicator that a trainer is out of their league. Spending hours of your time collecting details about stuff that doesn’t relate to the behaviour issue or the training is a worrisome flag in an unregulated field. If in doubt, check for credentials).

Photo: audrey_l/Shutterstock

As a dog trainer works with a dog, new details about the dog’s behaviour invariably crop up. Each step in a training plan is like a page turned. We expect the dog to react to men with beards, but in fact, men with hats are more problematic. We expect the dog to jump on guests at the door, but in fact, the dog jumps up in the kitchen. Each detail is added to the dog’s story, and the training plan changes or not, as needed. A plot twist here, a new character there.

This isn’t to say that the training plan we use for most dogs isn’t somewhat formulaic. Many, many dogs share a diagnosis and treatment protocol, because all dogs are...well, dogs, and because issues crop up in relatively predictable spots. Issues reliably crop up when dogs are scared or worried, when dogs are ill, and when dogs are exuberantly joyful in a way that doesn’t fit with their human families. But as all of us who not-so-secretly enjoy formulaic fiction can tell you, there is nothing wrong with a formula that works. Helping dogs and their owners is our primary concern, not post-modern creativity.

"You, curled up in an armchair with a mug of mocha and a rare evening all to yourself, learn just what you need to know to make the story work."

Quite happily for dogs ’round the globe, just as we almost always get resolution in a good book (or at least, we do in the good books I read...see formulaic, above), we almost always get resolution with the dogs we train, too. The lovely young Golden got a standard protocol to reduce his fearfulness around new people, by preventing exposure outside of training, and using desensitization and counterconditioning to change his underlying emotional state when he did come across strangers. And quite predictably, when he was no longer feeling threatened, the fearful barking went away all by itself.

As dog trainers we hop into the middle of a dog’s story, in medias res: the problem started before we got there, and we land on two feet, right into the middle of it. We fill out the backstory by asking questions and by observing the dog for ourselves. And like the most stalwart detective, we work our way through the dog’s story as we train, getting new information from how they respond to the training we propose. Finally, we reach the end of the book: the problem has resolved, or the owner is ready to take the pencil into their own hands and finish the story themselves. Another client, and another story, awaits.


Also by Kristi Benson:
Did we evolve to love dogs?
Digging into our common ground with dogs

About Kristi Benson CTC

Kristi Benson is an honours graduate of the prestigious Academy for Dog Trainers, where she earned her Certificate in Training and Counseling (CTC).  She lives and works in the Parkland Region of central Manitoba Canada, where she teaches dog obedience classes and helps dog owners in private consultations – both in-person and via video chat – for a full range of dog problems, from basic obedience to aggressive behaviour. Kristi is on staff at the Academy for Dog Trainers, helping to shape the next generation of canine professionals. Kristi’s dogs are rescue sled dogs, and for fun she runs them with a dog-powered scooter and on skis.

Contact her through her website and check out her blog, Facebook page, or Twitter for training tips, articles about dogs and training, and more.





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Shock collars, Regulation, and Education on the Alternatives

Shock collars should be banned, according to a survey of the use of electronic collars to train dogs in France.

Photo: SebiTian/Shutterstock

Recently, I reported on a study by veterinary behaviourists in Europe that concluded by calling for a ban on all three types of electronic collar across Europe (remote-controlled, boundary, and bark-activated collars). Another paper by Dr. Sylvia Masson et al, published in the Journal of Veterinary Behaviour, investigates the use of shock collars in France, and some of the results are surprising.

For one thing, they show that even amongst people who use shock collars there is a lot of support for regulating them.

But they also show a sizeable minority – even amongst people who do not use shock collars – that say they are the most effective way to resolve behaviour issues. This shows a need to get the message out that positive reinforcement is an effective way to train dogs (see seven reasons to use reward-based training methods and literature review recommends reward-based training).

The effectiveness, as reported by the electronic collar users, was not particularly high (51.1% of those who used remote-controlled collars, and 25.5% who used bark-activated collars, said it had worked and they could stop using it). As well, users of remote-controlled collars and bark-activated collars reported more abnormal behaviours in their dog than those who did not use them.

The paper concludes,

“based on this survey, it appears that in a real-life setting, ECs’ [electronic collars] ability to modify behaviors is limited. Thus, and as expected, the risks associated with their use are increased. Consequently, EC should not be used in everyday life without regulation. 

However, answers in this questionnaire show that some owners still think that EC can solve behavioral issues better than any other existing method. Considering the high use revealed by our results, a huge communication work toward the public has to be done. In the current survey, 78% of questioned owners ask for a better regulation of ECs. This seems to be a much needed and achievable goal that would restrict the access to devices (e.g. through the internet).”

Most people who used a shock collar did so after trying 2 or fewer alternatives (75%) and without taking professional advice (71.8%). 12.7% of shock collar users did not try any alternative prior to using the collar.

The most common alternatives that were tried before using the shock collar were “group training in a club” and looking on the internet. The next most common alternatives included books, advice from a veterinarian, a private trainer, and ‘none’.

People’s use of shock collars was associated with having a bigger dog (more than 40kg), the dog not being spayed or neutered, and the dog being used for protection or hunting. It is not known if the dog's sexual status is linked to behaviour issues, and/or to the owner's different treatment of the dog. The authors note that some disciplines may use electronic collars by tradition, as those who did agility or obedience training were less likely to use them.

“Based on this survey, it appears that in a real-life setting, electronic collars' ability to modify behaviors is limited"

Electronic collars were more likely to be used on dogs less than 2 years old. As well, users of electronic collars were more likely to say their dog showed excitement and aggression.

There are some interesting differences between those who did not use electronic collars and those who did. People who did not use them were less likely to have tried group training in a club, and more likely to have read dog training books or used the internet.

95.2% of those who did not use electronic collars and 77.9% of those who did thought their use should be regulated. 60% of non-users and 14% of users thought there should be an outright ban on electronic collars.

According to the electronic collar users’ ratings, although a majority (58%) said they would recommend them, in fact they were not particularly effective. The bark-activated collars, which were more often used on small dogs (weighing less than 10kg), were the least effective and had the highest rate of reported injuries (burns from the collar) at almost 11%.

But boundary collars and remote-controlled collars also were not reported to work as well as might be expected. This suggests real-life training use is not as effective as when the collars are used by trained professionals in controlled settings.

Not surprisingly, the main reason people gave for using bark-activated collars was due to barking. Boundary fences were typically used because of lack of a physical fence, but an American study found dogs escape from electronic fences at a much higher rate than from a physical fence.

The most common reason given for using a remote-controlled shock collar was for recall (coming when called). However, it’s worth noting that an experimental study using professional trainers found that positive reinforcement is just as effective as shock collars for teaching recall, but that there are risks with the use of shock collars.

The survey asked 1251 dog owners in France about their use of electronic collars. It’s important to note this is not a representative sample, so the results may not reflect the beliefs of French people as a whole. In particular, those who completed the survey were more likely than the general population to have a pedigree rather than a mixed-breed dog, and more likely to have a dog that weighs more than 10kg.

The use of shock collars in this study is much higher (26%) than found by Blackwell et al in their study of shock collar use in the UK (3.3%). Since neither is a nationally representative sample we can’t draw conclusions about the relative use of electronic collars in each country (but note that the British government recently announced a ban on two of the three types of shock collars in England).

The paper concludes that bark-activated collars and remote-controlled shock collars should be banned. In this study, few people used boundary fences, but the authors note they could also be banned as physical fences and reward-based training methods are a good alternative.

This is an interesting study that shows substantial support for the regulation of shock collars in France. At the same time, it shows there is much work to be done to teach people how to effectively train dogs and deal with behaviour problems using reward-based methods.

For the full set of results, see the paper (link below). If you’re interested in the wider research on dog training methods, my dog training research resources page has a list of articles along with places where you can read about them.

Stay up to date and subscribe to Companion Animal Psychology.


Reference
Masson, S., Nigron, I., & Gaultier, E. (2018). Questionnaire Survey on The Use Of Different E-Collar Types in France in Everyday Life With A View To Providing Recommendations for Possible Future Regulations. Journal of Veterinary Behavior. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jveb.2018.05.004

You might also like:

The ultimate dog training tip

Can dog training books be trusted?

The best dog training treats

Eight tips to help fearful dogs feel safe

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Study outlines reasons to ban electronic collars for dogs

A review of the scientific research finds there are risks to using electronic collars in dog training and says it's time for a ban.

Photo: Parilov / Shutterstock

Last year, a position statement from the European College of Veterinary Clinical Ethology argued against the use of electronic collars in dog training and for a Europe-wide ban on their sale and use.  Now an article in the Journal of Veterinary Behaviour by Dr. Sylvia Masson et al explains the reasons behind their position that electronic shock collars should not be used.

When people use electronic shock collars, it is typically as positive punishment to punish a dog for an unwanted behaviour. They are also sometimes used as negative reinforcement by applying the shock until the dog does the behaviour that is wanted. These days many electronic collars have a time limit on the application of shock, making it less likely they are used as negative reinforcement.

The paper considers all three types of electronic collars:

• Antibark collars that are activated by noise and automatically give a shock when the dog barks
• Electronic boundary fences that have underground sensors. When the dog crosses the boundary, the dog’s collar gives an electric shock
• Remote-controlled collars that enable a person to deliver a shock to the dog via a remote control.

The paper concludes,

“...there is no credible scientific evidence to justify e-collar use and the use of spray collars or electronic fences for dogs. On the contrary, there are many reasons to never use these devices. Better training options exist, with proven efficacy and low risk.”

They go on to recommend a ban on the sale, use and promotion of electronic collars across Europe.

The paper outlines reasons people may give for using electronic collars: they say they work; they want fast results; they’ve tried it on themselves and think it didn’t hurt (not taking into account differences between human skin and dog skin); they think the risks are lower in the long-term than other alternatives; or they think it will be cheaper than hiring a dog trainer or animal behaviourist.

The paper looks at the scientific evidence and demolishes all of these reasons. Ultimately, the use of electronic training collars poses risks to animal welfare, as found in Ziv’s earlier review of aversive training methods more generally.

For example, people who use shock collars may end up paying more on a dog trainer or behaviourist if use of the collar affects their relationship with the dog or the dog’s welfare. The application of shock may result in fear, aggression or learned helplessness. Poor timing on the part of the trainer will increase these risks.

Studies show increased fear and stress in dogs trained with shock collars. And it is possible for dogs to associate this with things other than the behaviour being punished, for example with the trainer, the location of the training, or (in the case of boundary fences) with people or dogs who happen to be walking by.

Meanwhile, there is no research that suggests electronic training collars are more effective; in contrast, there is some research that suggests positive reinforcement leads to better results. (For example, one study found no benefits to the use of shock collars to teach recall but some risks to animal welfare).

So although people give various reasons to support the use of electronic collars, there is no evidence to support those reasons. The paper says many people are reluctant to use electronic collars and prefer to use humane methods.

The paper also considers spray collars that release a puff or air or a spray of citronella when a dog barks. They say that if spray collars are used, it should be under the supervision of a veterinarian or behaviourist. The collars do not address the cause of barking, and this needs to be taken into consideration.

"...there is no credible scientific evidence to justify e-collar use and the use of spray collars or electronic fences for dogs"

And they recommend physical fences instead of electronic fences. One study found a higher risk of escape with electronic fences compared to a physical fence.

The scientists also consider people’s sources of information about dog training, which are often poor. This means many people may not know positive reinforcement is a better way to train dogs.

This is an important paper that clearly states the many problems with the use of electronic collars in dog training. It remains to be seen whether the European countries that do not already ban shock collars move to enact such a ban.

Austria, Denmark, Finland, Germany, Norway, Slovenia, Scotland, Sweden, Wales, and some parts of Australia already have a ban on electronic collars. England has plans to ban them.

In the meantime, if anyone is wondering whether or not to use an electronic collar on their dog, this article gives many reasons not to do so.

If you need help with your dog’s behaviour, choose a good dog trainer who will use positive reinforcement.

Professional organizations recommend the use of reward-based training methods (see seven reasons to use reward-based training methods).  You might also like my post the ultimate dog training tip. You can also read about my own article (published in the same issue of the Journal of Veterinary Behavior) on why don't more people use positive reinforcement to train dogs.

Subscribe to Companion Animal Psychology to learn more about how to have happy dogs and cats. And if you love Companion Animal Psychology, you can support me on Ko-fi.


If you’re interested in the science, I keep a list of dog training research resources where you can find the research on dog training methods (as well as places to read about it for free).

Reference

Masson, S., de la Vega, S., Gazzano, A., Mariti, C., Pereira, G. D. G., Halsberghe, C., Leyvraz, A.M., McPeake, K. & Schoening, B. (2018). Electronic training devices: discussion on the pros and cons of their use in dogs as a basis for the position statement of the European Society of Veterinary Clinical Ethology (ESVCE). Journal of Veterinary Behavior. 

https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S1558787818300108


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The Best Dog Training Treats

What are the best treats to use when training your dog? From the right size and nutritional composition to what dogs love best, this is a user-friendly guide to the best dog training treats.

Photo: Rattanawan Thubthed / Shutterstock

Whether you’re new to training or a seasoned pro, using the right treats is an important part of dog training because you have to be able to motivate your dog.

Food is a commonly-used reward in dog training for a reason – it works.

We often use food in operant conditioning, when we’re training a dog to do a behaviour. This is positive reinforcement (for more on why food makes a great reward, see the ultimate dog training tip).

The best training treat in one situation is not always right for another dog in another training scenario. This article looks at what to consider and then lists my favourite dog training treats.

Things to Consider When Choosing Dog Training Treats

There are several things to think about when choosing treats to use in training.

Your dog’s favourite foods 

It stands to reason that foods your dog likes a lot will be more motivating than those your dog is not so excited by. Every dog has their own individual preferences. For example, some dogs love pieces of carrot (my dog Bodger takes them away to munch on), but some dogs don’t particularly like carrot. (interestingly, some dogs like cheese less if a piece of carrot is given with it, even if they like carrot, something called suboptimal choice in dogs).

A recent study found that dogs run faster for a high quality training reward than for a low quality one (sausage vs kibble). However the quantity of the reward did not make a difference to the dog’s running speed (Riemer et al 2018). So it’s important to use reinforcement that is high quality from your dog’s perspective. Typically, that would not be kibble as your dog gets that at mealtimes anyway.

The training task

Some types of food reward are more suited to different kinds of training task. For example, suppose you are training basic obedience like sit, lie down, or stay, and you are working in your living room with few distractions. You will want to be training fast, both to keep your dog interested and to be efficient. That means you’ll be getting through a lot of treats.

When I studied at the Academy for Dog Trainers (“the Harvard of dog training”), I learned to aim for 8-12 repetitions a minute. This produces great results fast – but that’s a lot of treats. So you don’t want to be giving a great big slice of salami for each rep. My favourite for most obedience training is little pieces of cooked chicken.

But suppose you are training recall (teaching your dog to come when called). Recall is one of those things where you want to know you are going to get excellent results. And, at the same time, it’s something that is often difficult for the dog, in that there can be lots of distractions and other competing rewards, like dogs to play with, strangers to meet, and squirrels to chase. There are times when a great recall can save a dog’s life by getting them out of an unsafe situation. In other words, this is important stuff, and you never know when you might need it.

You could still use chicken, but you could also use something super yummy that your dog doesn’t get at other times, so they know they will always get a really special reward when they come when you call them.  My favourite reward for teaching recall is tripe stick, because dogs love it (I admit it is a bit stinky for me). Cheese is another favourite as most dogs really love cheese. Again, the stinkier the better.

Photo: Lukassek / Shutterstock

This guide assumes that you are using the treats as positive reinforcement in operant conditioning. For counter-conditioning (when you are trying to change your pet’s emotional response to a positive one) you want to make sure you are using good food (e.g. chicken, roast beef) and not being stingy.

Sometimes you might be using food as a management strategy. One example is when you’re trying to get a harness on a jumpy, bouncy, wriggly dog. You can use food to get the dog’s head through the harness, and then put a little pile of food on the floor to keep the dog occupied while you do up the belly straps. (Yes, you are still going to want to train the dog to keep still while you put the harness on, but with this management method you can at least still take them out for a walk while training is ongoing).

Another example might be when you’re using food to distract a dog from something nearby they might react to, like other dogs. If you keep them interested in food, they won’t notice or pay attention to the other dogs. This can be a useful management strategy for those times when you aren't training.

If you want to avoid interruptions in the treat supply while you reach into your bait bag, you might prefer to use a treat tube. There are several brands you can buy, such as leanlix. Or you can make your own by putting a food paste (such as watered down pate cat food) in a squeeze tube or reusable food pouch. These are available from camping supply stores or baby supplies. Pick something that is easy to clean after use, and has an opening that is easy to fill.

If you want to make your own lickable treat, you could mix cream cheese with canned tuna or peanut butter. Add water to get the consistency you require. Freeze it if you want to make it last even longer.

Variety

Every dog has individual preferences, and some dogs will care more about variety than others. If you find your dog getting bored of one kind of reward, you can always try another. (Or if it turns out the dog is tired of training, give them a chance to rest and resume again on another day).

Your dog’s dietary requirements 

Some dogs need a special diet. Suspected or actual food allergies may mean certain ingredients have to be avoided. Some medical conditions also have implications for diet.

For example, dogs with kidney disease have special dietary requirements including that it is low in phosphorus.  If your dog has chronic kidney disease, you may also like this post from the Clinical Nutrition Service at Cummings Veterinary Medical Centre on treats that are suitable for dogs with kidney disease. They also have a list of reduced sodium treats and diets for pets with heart disease.

If you have concerns about your dog’s diet or need advice on nutrition, see your vet.

If your dog has dietary restrictions, any treats you use in training should also meet those needs, so read labels carefully and take your vet’s advice. Many kibbles made to meet special dietary needs also have a corresponding canned food (and sometimes corresponding treats too) that can be used as a reward in training. It may also be possible to make your own using ingredients that you know are okay for your dog.

Some hard chews (like rawhide) may be a choking hazard, so supervise your pet when you give them.

Photo: Shutterstock 

Nutrition

When choosing ready-prepared dog training treats, read the ingredients to check you are happy with them. This article from the Clinical Nutrition Service at Cummings Veterinary Medical Centre, Tufts University, has some advice on reading pet food labels.

Some treats contain sugar in one form or another. Dogs, unlike cats, can taste sweetness. It may be added to make the food tastier to dogs, but sugars are also used as humectants in some products. Humectants keep moisture in food and keep the texture nice.

A recent study of the ingredients lists and nutritional content of dog treats found that while they are low in glucose and fructose, levels of sucrose are variable (Morelli et al 2018). While some contained no sucrose, at the highest level one dog biscuit contained sucrose at a level of 35.9g per 1000 kcals, while one tender treat (made up mainly of meat and cereals) contained 51.7g sucrose per 1000kcals. (Note this is expressed as a ratio and the treats are not 1000kcals each!).

Morelli’s paper says that while there is a guideline from the World Small Animal Veterinary Association that treats should not make up more than 10% of a dog’s daily energy requirement, if the feeding instructions on packets were followed, many (but not all) treats would exceed this amount.

Another consideration is whether or not you wish to feed treats that are raw. Most freeze-dried treats are raw and thus have the same risks as other raw foods (Freeman et al 2013). Freeman’s paper says the risk of infection from raw meat-based food is of particular concern for humans or animals that are young, elderly, pregnant, lactating, ill, or have a compromised immune system.

Remember that dog training treats are part of your dog’s overall diet. This means you need to adjust the calories given in meals to ensure your dog does not become overweight or obese. Some recent studies suggest more than half of dogs are overweight or obese (German et al 2018).

If you need advice on feeding your pet, or you are concerned about your dog's weight, speak to your veterinarian.

Which are the best treats to use in training?

These are my favourite treats to use for dog training. They are tasty to motivate dogs and the right size for use in training.

Cooked chicken

As mentioned above, little pieces of cooked chicken are my favourite treat for most dog training activities. I sometimes put chicken breasts in a tray, cover them with water, and bake in the oven until cooked through. The liquid becomes a nice chicken broth for my dog, and I chop the chicken breasts into little pieces about the size of a pea.

But I’ll be honest, sometimes I’m lazy or busy and so I buy ready-to-eat chicken pieces from the supermarket and cut it into bits for training. It’s important to read the label and check no onion or onion powder is in the ingredients, as onion is not safe for dogs to eat.

Tripe Stick

One of the things that is great about tripe stick is that it is stinky and dogs love it. Another thing I like is that you can easily tear it into smaller pieces.

Depending on the brand you get, some are 100% beef while others contain a mix of ingredients that make them softer and easier to tear. As always, read the ingredients to check they are right for you and your pet.

You can also buy little freeze-dried tripe treats.

Options include PetKind Green Beef Tripe Treats for Dogs, the Barkworthies Green Tripe Sticks Treat and Vital Essentials Freeze-Dried Beef Tripe Grain Free Limited Ingredient Dog Treats.

Dried Sardines

Dogs seem to find these very tasty and they are easy to break in half if you want to make them smaller. Look out for freeze-dried minnows at the pet store.

Orijen freeze-dried tundra dog treats

These are great if you are looking for something that is completely natural, and another big favourite with my dog. They do sometimes leave flaky bits at the bottom of my bait bag, but I add it to kibble at mealtimes.

Cheese

Something you no doubt already have in your home, little cubes of cheese can be a good training reward, especially for those occasions (like recall) when you want to use something really special. What type of cheese you use is up to you. Many dogs probably think the stronger the better!

Waggers Peanut Butter Tid Bits

These pork liver treats are a great size for training. My dog loves the peanut butter ones. This Canadian brand is based in Kelowna, BC.

Tricky Trainers, Liver Flavour

Tricky Trainers, Liver Flavor are a small size for training and another favourite with my own dog.

Fruitables Skinny Minis

These are just 2 calories per treat and have a nice fruity smell. My favourite is the pumpkin and mango, but other flavours include rotisserie chicken, grilled bison, and apple bacon.

Tuna Fudge

See the recipe below! This is a great home-made dog training treat that does not crumble.

Hot Dogs

These are cheap, easy to cut into small pieces, and dogs love them. If you cook them in the microwave they will become dry and you can avoid the greasy feeling on your hands. Canned Vienna sausage is a good alternative too (again, you might prefer to microwave it first).

Make your own home-made dog training treats

Of course, it’s very easy to make your own home-made cookies. If you like to bake, you can experiment with the recipes below and come up with your own variations.

A nice idea from Eileen Anderson is to bake the cookie mixture in a silicone mould so that it comes out ready-cut into little pieces.  But you can also bake them on a flat tray and cut into pieces.

When using peanut butter, pick a brand that is all natural and does not contain added sugar. Read the label carefully to check there is no xylitol (an artificial sweetener). Some brands of peanut butter contain xylitol, which is poisonous to dogs. (Xylitol is also found in other food products such as chewing gum and candy, and some dental products, so always read labels and keep your pet safe).

Recipes for Home-Made Dog Training Treats

Tuna Fudge Recipe

170g (1 can) flaked tuna (including the liquid)
2 medium eggs
125g (1 cup) flour
A pinch of turmeric.

Mix all the ingredients together. Press onto a baking tray. Bake for about 20 minutes at 350F (175C).

Possible varations: Substitute another canned fish e.g. salmon, or even canned chicken or corned beef, for the tuna. Since the tuna includes liquid, if you’re using something without liquid, the equivalent amount is 120g of e.g. corned beef, and add 50ml of milk to make up the liquid quantity.

Other flavourings: Instead of the turmeric, substitute some chopped parsley, basil, rosemary, cilantro, oregano or peppermint.

Another variant is to add a small amount of grated cheese to the mixture.

Three Frozen Home-Made Dog Treat Recipes

You can adjust the size of these frozen dog treats according to the containers you freeze them in. Of course, frozen treats take longer to eat, so they are not so suitable for quick-fire training rounds, but they may be especially appreciated on a hot day.

Frozen Yoghurt and Tuna Treats

Mix 1 can flaked tuna with the equivalent amount of plain yoghurt. If desired, add a little bit of flaked parsley or basil. Spoon into ice cube trays and freeze.

Frozen Chicken Fruit Cubes

Mix 250g chicken stock (1 cup), I banana (mashed), 1 grated apple, and 75 grams (about half a cup) of whole blueberries. Put into ice cube trays and freeze.

Pumpkin Peanut Popsicles

One 796ml can of pumpkin (get 100% pumpkin, not the sweetened variety); 250g (1 cup) smooth peanut butter, a quarter teaspoon of cinnamon, 1 teaspoon honey.

Mix all the ingredients, put into small silicone popsicle moulds and freeze.

What are your dog’s favourite treats in training? 

If you want to find out which are your dog’s favourite treats, you might be happy to go by gut feeling of how happy your dog seems to get them. Or you might like to set up a preference test to find out.

One way to do so is to use a 2-bowl test, which is often used by scientists to evaluate dogs’ preferences. Essentially, a different food item is put in each of two bowls, and the dog is given a choice. The one the dog tends to go to first (and gets to eat) is assumed to be preferred.

If you want to try this at home, you will need to do many trials and keep track of your results. It may take your dog a little while to get the hang of this new game you are playing.

It is better to use a bowl or plate rather than your hand, as you may already have a history of tending to feed your dog treats from one hand rather than the other, or training them to nose touch one hand rather than the other. So your dog might already have a positive bias towards your left or right hand.

You will also need to swap the location of the treats so that over time, half the time one treat is in the left-hand bowl, and half the time it is on the right-hand bowl. Some dogs have a tendency to go towards the left or to the right, and maybe you will observe this in your dog.

Keep your own body language neutral, so that you are not inadvertently encouraging your dog to choose a particular bowl because of your body language or because you are looking at it.

If you try this with lots of different treat pairings, you can make a ‘pay scale’ for your dog!

Subscribe to Companion Animal Psychology to learn how to have happy dogs and cats.

This post is part of the 2018 Train for Rewards blog party. Check out the other posts!

What are your favourite treats to use in training?


References
Freeman, L. M., Chandler, M. L., Hamper, B. A., & Weeth, L. P. (2013). Current knowledge about the risks and benefits of raw meat–based diets for dogs and cats. Journal of the American Veterinary Medical Association, 243(11), 1549-1558.

German, A. J., Woods, G. R., Holden, S. L., Brennan, L., & Burke, C. (2018). Small animal health: Dangerous trends in pet obesity. The Veterinary record, 182(1), 25.

Morelli, G., Fusi, E., Tenti, S., Serva, L., Marchesini, G., Diez, M., & Ricci, R. (2018). Study of ingredients and nutrient composition of commercially available treats for dogs. The Veterinary record, 182(12), 351-351.

Riemer, S., Ellis, S. L., Thompson, H., & Burman, O. H. (2018). Reinforcer effectiveness in dogs—The influence of quantity and quality. Applied Animal Behaviour Science.


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What is Negative Reinforcement in Dog Training?

A user-friendly guide to understanding negative reinforcement in dog training – and the three alternatives you should know about.

Photo: Angyalosi Beata /Shutterstock

If you are new to dog training, or want to understand some of the language of dog training, this article is for you. It covers the technical definition of negative reinforcement in dog training, examples of how it is used, what research tells us about negative reinforcement, and alternatives that you can use instead (along with some common mistakes people make, so you know how to get it right).

This article is part of a series of guides that also covers positive reinforcement and positive punishment in dog training.

Let’s start with the technical definition.

What is negative reinforcement?

Negative reinforcement is one way to train dogs (and other animals).

Negative reinforcement means taking something away that increases or maintains the frequency of a behaviour.

The ‘negative’ part refers to something being removed, and ‘reinforcement’ means the behaviour went up in frequency. (If it instead occurred less often, it wouldn’t be reinforcement).

So what kind of thing can you take away to make a behaviour more likely to happen? Something that is unpleasant and which the dog does not like.

Examples of negative reinforcement in dog training

One example of negative reinforcement is when the dog’s bottom is pushed to force the dog into a sit, and then released once the dog is in a sit. Assuming the behaviour of sitting goes up in frequency, the behaviour was negatively reinforced by the removal of the pressure on the dog’s rear end.

Another example of negative reinforcement involves applying an electronic dog training collar until the dog does the behaviour you want – let’s say it’s ‘sit’ again. As soon as the dog sits, the shock is turned off. The thing that is removed is the unpleasant sensation from the shock collar, and the behaviour of ‘sit’ is more likely to happen and hence has been reinforced. (Note that not all electronic collars allow for this type of training. Some models will apply the shock for a fixed time of 11 seconds after the button is pressed; read why there are calls for shock collars to be banned or about a study of using shock collars for recall training).

Another example of negative reinforcement is sometimes used when working with a dog that is afraid, e.g. of other dogs. When another dog is close by, the handler waits until the dog offers a particular behaviour (such as looking at the handler) before allowing the dog to move away. Here, the behaviour of looking at the handler after seeing another dog is being reinforced by taking away the scary situation of being too close to another dog.

I’m not suggesting these are good ways to train your dog. In fact we’ll get to some alternatives in a moment.

Research shows risks with negative reinforcement in dog training

In order to use negative reinforcement, something aversive has to be applied first so that it can then be removed contingent on the dog doing the behaviour you are teaching.

Let’s say you’re teaching sit. Typically what happens is that whatever behaviour the dog was doing before the sit – let’s say, standing – goes down in frequency and is replaced by the sit. Technically speaking, in this scenario the behaviour of standing is positively punished (read more about positive punishment).

Unfortunately, applying an aversive – such as an electronic shock or pressure on the dog’s neck or body – has risks for the dog’s welfare. Research shows that using aversive methods in dog training is associated with an increased risk of fear and aggression, and may even be less effective. It’s better to use reward-based methods (see more on why more people don’t use positive reinforcement to train dogs).

Most of the research on dog training methods has focussed on comparing reward-based methods to aversive methods. For example, in a 2014 study of aggression in dogs, the use of positive punishment and/or negative reinforcement was associated with an increased risk of aggression of 2.9 times for aggression towards family members, and 2.2 times towards unfamiliar people outside of the house (Casey et al 2014). In this study, barking, lunging, growling and biting were all considered to be aggression.

Photo: alexei_tm / Shutterstock

But there is one study that looked specifically at the use of negative reinforcement in dog training (Deldalle and Gaunet, 2014).

This study compared dogs taking an advanced dog training class at two different schools: one that used positive reinforcement and one that used negative reinforcement. The dogs had already completed a basic dog training class at the same school.

Negative reinforcement was used to teach loose leash walking by tugging on the leash while the dog was at a distance from the owner, and stopping tugging when the dog was close by. Sit was taught by both pulling the leash up and pushing the dog’s bottom down and only releasing when the dog was in the sit position. At the other school, positive reinforcement was used to reward the dog for doing the right behaviour.

The results showed that dogs in the negative reinforcement group:

• Rarely looked at their owners when walking on leash, compared to those taught with positive reinforcement. This is unfortunate because trainers want the dog’s attention
• Showed more mouth licks and yawns when practicing the ‘sit’ command, and were more likely to have a low body posture, all signs of stress

The study concludes that training dogs with positive reinforcement is better for the human-canine relationship than using negative reinforcement.

As mentioned above, negative reinforcement is sometimes used when the dog is afraid of something. Unfortunately in this case negative reinforcement involves keeping the dog in a situation where they are afraid until they have done the required behaviour. There is a risk of sensitization (making the dog more afraid) or flooding which can cause learned helplessness (in everyday language we might describe this as being “shut down”).

Besides which, it violates the principle that the first priority with a scared dog is to help them feel safe. There is no need to put your dog in a situation where they feel fear in order to train them.

While we still need more research on dog training methods, it is better not to risk negative effects if we don’t need to. Many professional organizations recommend the use of reward-based methods (see: seven reasons to use reward-based dog training methods).

So what are the alternatives to negative reinforcement? There is more than one alternative to negative reinforcement, depending on the situation.

The best alternative to negative reinforcement for obedience behaviours

As you can guess from the previous section, one of the alternatives to using negative reinforcement is to train with positive reinforcement instead. This is a great choice for teaching obedience behaviours like sit, lie down, and loose leash walking.

A common mistake is to use something the trainer thinks will be reinforcing but which the dog doesn’t particularly care about, like praise. That’s why I suggest to anyone new to dog training to use food to train their dogs (for more information, read the ultimate dog training tip).

Photo: Nina Buday / Shutterstock

When teaching loose leash walking with positive reinforcement, you may also find it helpful to use a no-pull harness. This is a harness with a clip on the front designed to prevent pulling (note that some harnesses have a clip on the back and are designed to facilitate pulling instead – don’t accidentally get the wrong kind!). A no-pull harness is not harmful and does not compromise dogs’ welfare (Grainger et al 2016). (Some dogs with body handling issues may need a gradual introduction to having the harness put on and lots of yummy treats to help them learn to like it).

Alternatives to negative reinforcement when the dog is afraid

But what about when we’re not teaching basic obedience? You may remember one of the examples above relates to using negative reinforcement when the dog is afraid, and the aversive stimulus is the thing the dog is scared of.

If the dog is afraid, then you have two great options: positive reinforcement to teach a different behaviour (which dog trainers call DRI, or differential reinforcement of an incompatible behaviour); or counter-conditioning with or without desensitization.

Let’s stick with the example of a dog that is afraid of other dogs. In the negative reinforcement case, the dog was being asked to look at the handler before being allowed to move away from the other dog.

If we use positive reinforcement instead, we would not get close enough to the other dog for our dog to be scared; instead, we would stay at a safe distance (from the dog’s perspective, even if that’s an inconveniently long way away). We could still use the behaviour of looking at the handler; every time the dog sees another dog, you encourage him to look at you and reinforce with some good food.

Over time, the cue could be seeing the other dog so that any time your dog sees another dog, he will look to you for his piece of food. If, every single time he sees another dog, you ask him to look at you and then reinforce that behaviour, what will happen over time is that your dog will begin to learn that seeing another dog is a good thing, and this is actually a classical conditioning side effect.

So now let’s look at the counter-conditioning option. Counter-conditioning is a type of classical conditioning. You would not get close enough to the other dog for your dog to be scared, but would deliberately stay at a safe distance where your dog is happy and comfortable. Every time another dog is in sight, you would give your dog yummy food. He doesn’t have to do anything in order to get the food, just realize that the other dog is there. What you are trying to do is change the association, so that your dog learns other dogs are a good thing because they predict yummy food.

Photo: PH888 / Shutterstock

Even though one of these is operant conditioning (positive reinforcement) and the other is classical conditioning (in this case, counter-conditioning) there are some similarities.

In both cases you’re hoping eventually to change the dog’s feelings about something scary, it's just that one method focuses on this aim while with the other method it's a side-effect.

In both cases it is important to keep your dog at a safe distance where they don’t feel scared, otherwise you risk undermining your training (and perhaps accidentally using negative reinforcement).

And in both cases, your dog will get food (or another great reward such as a quick game of tug). It’s just that in the positive reinforcement option they will have to do something to earn the food, and in counter-conditioning they don't have to do anything; the food happens because another dog appeared.

For more tips on fearful dogs, see eight tips to help fearful dogs feel safe.

Some Common Mistakes

A common mistake is to push things too fast and to accidentally go ‘over threshold’ – in other words, put the dog in a situation where they are in fact scared. If this happens, move quickly back to a safe distance, and resolve not to let it happen again.

You may also need to brush up on your skills at reading canine body language, which is nothing to be ashamed of as it takes time and experience. We all keep on learning from the dogs we spend time with. For more on the signs of fear, anxiety and stress, see how can I tell if my dog is afraid? You might also like the website iSpeakDog; and there is also a great book called Canine Behavior: A Photo Illustrated Handbook by Barbara Handelman. You might also like to read about the role of experience in recognizing fear in dogs.

Another common mistake with the DRI option is to make it too hard. You actually need to make it really easy for your dog because you want them to earn the treat every time so as to start getting a classical conditioning side effect. The behaviour doesn’t have to be 'watch me', it could be 'leave it' or 'sit' or a nose-touch or something else instead. Just make sure to keep it nice and easy (which may include practicing at home first).

Another common mistake is not being ready to give the food fast enough. If you’re using the DRI option, you should feed as soon as the dog has done the behaviour requested. If you’re doing classical conditioning, you should feed as soon as your dog sees the other dog. Either way, you need to have your treats ready, hidden on your person (in a pocket or bait bag), and be paying attention, so you get your timing right.

Whichever approach you are using, use food rewards that your dog really likes, and don’t be stingy, because that would be another mistake.

Photo: Monkey Business Images / Shutterstock

Which is the best approach, DRI or classical conditioning?

Which of these two techniques works best? We don’t know. Both approaches work!  I don’t know of any research which investigated which is the best option in a real-life dog training situation.

With both techniques, it is important to go at the dog’s pace, so the speed of learning is the one that the dog is comfortable with.

With the DRI option, the dog learns a new behaviour and gets a classical conditioning side effect. With the classical conditioning option, often you will find that the dog learns a new behaviour too (called a superstitious behaviour), such as looking at your bait bag after seeing the other dog, because they have learned that seeing the other dog predicts food and that’s where the food will come from. One reason you might choose desensitization and counter-conditioning over a DRI is when you don't have control over the scary thing, whatever it is. In our example, if other dogs are popping up all over the place (which is a common problem), you might find your DRI keeps being too hard, which means your dog is not able to earn the treats in the presence of all the other dogs, undermining your classical conditioning side-effect. In this case, you could find somewhere else to train where things are a lot more predictable, or just decide to start with counter-conditioning instead.

Another reason you might choose desensitization and counter-conditioning is if your dog is actually very afraid, rather than a mild fear. In this case, it's probably better to concentrate your efforts on gradually developing a positive conditioned emotional response (counter-conditioning).

If your dog is fearful and you are concerned, see your veterinarian in case medication and/or referral to a veterinary behaviourist is advised.

I find that some people seem to have a natural preference for either operant or classical conditioning, so if this applies to you and both approaches seem suitable, then you can let your own preference guide you to the approach you prefer.

If you need ideas for treats to use in training, see the best dog training treats.

Working with a reactive dog can be tricky. If you need some help, check out the web page CARE for reactive dogs, which clearly explains how to use desensitization, counter-conditioning and positive reinforcement when working with a reactive dog. If you have a fearful dog, you might like the website fearfuldogs.com. The associated Facebook group is a friendly place to ask questions about helping your dog.

And if you need help, find a good dog trainer to work with you and your dog. And look out for for some more relevant posts coming here soon.

You might also like: Can dog training books be trusted? and dominance training deprives dogs of positive experiences. And if you want to delve into the scientific research on dog training methods, check out my dog training research resources page.

What is your favourite dog training technique?

Further Reading

The following books are useful guides to dog training and understanding your dog:

It's Me or the Dog: How to Have the Perfect Pet by Victoria Stilwell.
The Power of Positive Dog Training by Pat Miller.
Culture Clash and Train Your Dog Like a Pro by Jean Donaldson.
The Cautious Canine-How to Help Dogs Conquer Their Fears by Patricia McConnell.
Don't Shoot the Dog: The New Art of Teaching and Training by Karen Pryor.
Canine Behavior: A Photo Illustrated Handbook by Barbara Handelman.
From Fearful to Fear Free: A Positive Program to Free Your Dog from Anxiety, Fears, and Phobias by Marty Becker, Lisa Radosta, Mikkel Becker and Wailani Sung, edited by Kim Campbell Thornton.

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References

Casey, R. A., Loftus, B., Bolster, C., Richards, G. J., & Blackwell, E. J. (2014). Human directed aggression in domestic dogs (Canis familiaris): Occurrence in different contexts and risk factors. Applied Animal Behaviour Science, 152, 52-63.
Deldalle, S., & Gaunet, F. (2014). Effects of 2 training methods on stress-related behaviors of the dog (Canis familiaris) and on the dog–owner relationship. Journal of Veterinary Behavior: Clinical Applications and Research, 9(2), 58-65.
Grainger, J., Wills, A., & Montrose, V. (2016). The behavioral effects of walking on a collar and harness in domestic dogs (Canis familiaris) Journal of Veterinary Behavior: Clinical Applications and Research, 14, 60-64 DOI: 10.1016/j.jveb.2016.06.002


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